Negative psychological correlates of the pursuit of muscularity among women
Abstract
OBJECTIVE: There is increasing public and scientific focus on women's pursuit of a muscular and toned appearance. However, the psychological correlates of women's drive for muscularity are currently unclear. Therefore, we examined the associations of drive for muscularity with four important negative psychological indices among women: eating disorder (ED) symptoms, and symptoms of depression, anxiety, and stress. METHOD: A sample of 221 university women completed an online survey that included measures assessing the aforementioned constructs. RESULTS: Drive for muscularity evidenced positive associations with all negative psychological indices, except for anxiety. Muscularity-oriented attitudes, as opposed to behaviors, demonstrated the strongest associations with ED and depression symptoms. DISCUSSION: Our findings make a novel contribution to the scant literature by demonstrating that women who endorse attitudes and/or behaviors geared toward attaining the female muscular ideal may be susceptible to experiencing ED symptoms and negative emotional states. This study provides preliminary evidence that muscularity-oriented attitudes, in particular, may be a promising target for the treatment of EDs and negative emotional states in women with a preoccupation toward muscularity.
Integrity signals
Registry
Cites
Statistics
Claims the paper makes
Claims other papers make about this one
Each is checked against this paper’s own text: does it say what the citing paper says it does?
The athletic female body type is potentially harder to achieve than a thin body and can lead to greater dissatisfaction than the previous thin female ideal.
“This body type is potentially even harder to achieve than a thin body and can lead to greater dissatisfaction than the previous thin female ideal (Uhlmann et al., 2018), with links to negative psychological outcomes (Cunningham et al., 2019).”
From The degree to which the cultural ideal is internalized predicts judgments of male and female physical attractiveness (2022) · cites this paper as Cunningham et al., 2019
Cites
R: A Language and Environment for Statistical Computing
R Core Team (2000) · doi:10.32614/r.manuals · Cited by 355,706 · see citing works
Tabachnick, B. G., & Fidell, L. S. (1983) · Cited by 79,888 · see citing works
Principles and Practice of Structural Equation Modeling
Tabri, N., & Elliott, C. M. (2012) · Canadian Graduate Journal of Sociology and Criminology · doi:10.15353/cgjsc.v1i1.3787 · Cited by 39,065 · see citing works
Eysenck, H. J. (1985) · Behaviour Research and Therapy · doi:10.1016/0005-7967(85)90087-7 · Cited by 32,026 · see citing works
“Stress: appraisal and coping,”
Folkman, S. (2013) · Encyclopedia of Behavioral Medicine · doi:10.1007/978-1-4419-1005-9_215 · Cited by 27,833 · see citing works
(1995) · Cited by 6,909 · see citing works
Henry, J. D., & Crawford, J. R. (2005) · British Journal of Clinical Psychology · doi:10.1348/014466505x29657 · Cited by 5,801 · see citing works
(2011) · Cited by 5,290 · see citing works
Hays, W. (1983) · Contemporary Psychology · doi:10.1037/022267 · Cited by 2,399 · see citing works
Exercise as a treatment for depression: a meta-analysis adjusting for publication bias
Schuch, F. B., Vancampfort, D., Richards, J., Rosenbaum, S., Ward, P. B., & Stubbs, B. (2016) · Journal of Psychiatric Research · doi:10.1016/j.jpsychires.2016.02.023 · Cited by 1,529 · see citing works
The enigma of male eating disorders: A critical review and synthesis
Murray, S. B., Nagata, J. M., Griffiths, S., Calzo, J. P., Brown, T. A., Mitchison, D., Blashill, A. J., & Mond, J. (2017) · Clinical Psychology Review · doi:10.1016/j.cpr.2017.08.001 · Cited by 715 · see citing works
Self-citationDevelopment and validation of the Eating Pathology Symptoms Inventory (EPSI).
Forbush, K. T., Wildes, J. E., Pollack, L. O., Dunbar, D., Luo, J., Patterson, K., Petruzzi, L. J., Pollpeter, M. J., Miller, H. L., Stone, A. M., et al. (2013) · Psychological Assessment · doi:10.1037/a0032639 · Cited by 506 · see citing works
Gideon, N., Hawkes, N., Mond, J., Saunders, R., Tchanturia, K., & Serpell, L. (2016) · PLoS ONE · doi:10.1371/journal.pone.0152744 · Cited by 419 · see citing works
Advances in a cognitive behavioural model of body dysmorphic disorder
Veale, D. M. (2003) · Body Image · doi:10.1016/s1740-1445(03)00009-3 · Cited by 381 · see citing works
Lavender, J. M., Brown, T. A., & Murray, S. B. (2017) · Current Psychiatry Reports · doi:10.1007/s11920-017-0787-5 · Cited by 339 · see citing works
Self-citationIs body dissatisfaction changing across time? A cross-temporal meta-analysis.
Karazsia, B. T., Murnen, S. K., & Tylka, T. L. (2016) · Psychological Bulletin · doi:10.1037/bul0000081 · Cited by 336 · see citing works
Evolving eating disorder psychopathology: Conceptualising muscularity-oriented disordered eating
Murray, S. B., Griffiths, S., & Mond, J. (2016) · The British Journal of Psychiatry · doi:10.1192/bjp.bp.115.168427 · Cited by 266 · see citing works
Self-citationThin is in? Think again: the rising importance of muscularity in the thin ideal female body
Bozsik, F., Whisenhunt, B. L., Hudson, D. L., Bennett, B., & Lundgren, J. D. (2018) · Sex Roles · doi:10.1007/s11199-017-0886-0 · Cited by 189 · see citing works
Body Image in the Context of Eating Disorders
McLean, S. A., & Paxton, S. J. (2018) · Psychiatric Clinics of North America · doi:10.1016/j.psc.2018.10.006 · Cited by 189 · see citing works
Support for the uniqueness of body dissatisfaction from drive for muscularity among men
Bergeron, D., & Tylka, T. L. (2007) · Body Image · doi:10.1016/j.bodyim.2007.05.002 · Cited by 172 · see citing works
Tull, M. T., & Gratz, K. L. (2008) · Journal of Anxiety Disorders · doi:10.1016/j.janxdis.2007.03.005 · Cited by 162 · see citing works
Murray, S. B., Brown, T. A., Blashill, A. J., Compte, E. J., Lavender, J. M., Mitchison, D., Mond, J., Keel, P. K., & Nagata, J. M. (2019) · International Journal of Eating Disorders · doi:10.1002/eat.23144 · Cited by 155 · see citing works
Self-citationSharpe, H., Griffiths, S., Choo, T.-H. J., Eisenberg, M. E., Mitchison, D., Wall, M. M., & Neumark‐Sztainer, D. (2018) · International Journal of Eating Disorders · doi:10.1002/eat.22936 · Cited by 149 · see citing works
Self-citationDevelopment and Validation of the Female Muscularity Scale
Rodgers, R. F., Franko, D. L., Lovering, M. E., Luk, S., Pernal, W., & Matsumoto, A. (2017) · Sex Roles · doi:10.1007/s11199-017-0775-6 · Cited by 113 · see citing works
Self-citationDisordered eating and the muscular ideal
Griffiths, S., Murray, S. B., & Touyz, S. W. (2013) · Journal of Eating Disorders · doi:10.1186/2050-2974-1-15 · Cited by 108 · see citing works
Self-citationGirard, M., Rodgers, R., & Chabrol, H. (2018) · Body image · doi:10.1016/j.bodyim.2018.07.001 · Cited by 88 · see citing works
Muscle Dysmorphia: An Overview of Clinical Features and Treatment Options
Cunningham, M. L., Griffiths, S., Mitchison, D., Mond, J., Castle, D. J., & Murray, S. B. (2017) · Journal of Cognitive Psychotherapy · doi:10.1891/0889-8391.31.4.255 · Cited by 55 · see citing works
Self-citationGriffiths, S., Mond, J., Murray, S. B., & Touyz, S. W. (2015) · Australian & New Zealand Journal of Psychiatry · doi:10.1177/0004867415572412 · Cited by 48 · see citing works
Self-citation
Flagged first, then by citations
2 of the 30 references couldn’t be matched to a known paper.
Cited by
Sorted by citations
Prevalence of muscle dysmorphia in adolescents: findings from the EveryBODY study
Mitchison, D., Mond, J., Griffiths, S., Hay, P., Nagata, J. M., Bussey, K., Trompeter, N., Lonergan, A. R., & Murray, S. B. (2021) · Psychological Medicine · doi:10.1017/s0033291720005206 · Cited by 89 · see citing works
Self-citationPrnjak, K., Jukic, I., Mitchison, D., Griffiths, S., & Hay, P. (2022) · Body Image · doi:10.1016/j.bodyim.2022.07.006 · Cited by 79 · see citing works
Self-citationRodgers, R. F., Simone, M., Franko, D. L., Eisenberg, M. E., Loth, K. A., & Neumark‐Sztainer, D. (2021) · International Journal of Eating Disorders · doi:10.1002/eat.23492 · Cited by 37 · see citing works
Self-citationTalbot, D., & Mahlberg, J. (2024) · Current Psychology · doi:10.1007/s12144-024-06108-z · Cited by 34 · see citing works
Jankauskienė, R., Bacevičienė, M., & Trinkūnienė, L. (2020) · International Journal of Environmental Research and Public Health · doi:10.3390/ijerph17114044 · Cited by 34 · see citing works
Cunningham, M. L., Pinkus, R. T., Lavender, J. M., Rodgers, R. F., Mitchison, D., Trompeter, N., Ganson, K. T., Nagata, J. M., Szabó, M., Murray, S. B., et al. (2022) · Body Image · doi:10.1016/j.bodyim.2022.06.002 · Cited by 34 · see citing works
Self-citationZaiser, C., Laskowski, N. M., Müller, R., Abdulla, K., Sabel, L., Reque, C. B., Brandt, G., & Paslakis, G. (2024) · Neuroscience & Biobehavioral Reviews · doi:10.1016/j.neubiorev.2024.105772 · Cited by 27 · see citing works
Analysis of Body Perception, Preworkout Meal Habits and Bone Resorption in Child Gymnasts
Amato, A., Proia, P., Caldara, G., Alongi, A., Ferrantelli, V., & Baldassano, S. (2021) · International Journal of Environmental Research and Public Health · doi:10.3390/ijerph18042184 · Cited by 24 · see citing works
Cunningham, M. L., Szabó, M., Rodgers, R. F., Franko, D. L., Eddy, K. T., Thomas, J. J., Murray, S. B., & Griffiths, S. (2020) · Body Image · doi:10.1016/j.bodyim.2020.03.004 · Cited by 18 · see citing works
Self-citationAlvero‐Cruz, J. R., Mathias, V. P., & García-Romero, J. (2020) · Journal of Clinical Medicine · doi:10.3390/jcm9072024 · Cited by 17 · see citing works
Cunningham, M. L., Rodgers, R. F., Pinkus, R. T., Nagata, J. M., Trompeter, N., Mitchison, D., Murray, S. B., Szabó, M., & Lavender, J. M. (2021) · International Journal of Eating Disorders · doi:10.1002/eat.23621 · Cited by 16 · see citing works
Self-citationde Carvalho, P. H. B., Bagolin, V., Junqueira, A. C. P., Nagata, J. M., Cattle, C. J., Murray, S. B., Compte, E. J., Costa, T. M. B., Almeida, S. S., & Laus, M. F. (2022) · International Journal of Eating Disorders · doi:10.1002/eat.23702 · Cited by 16 · see citing works
Self-citationRidley, B. J., Cornelissen, P. L., Maalin, N., Mohamed, S., Kramer, R. S. S., McCarty, K., & Tovée, M. J. (2022) · Frontiers in Psychology · doi:10.3389/fpsyg.2022.980277 · Cited by 15 · see citing works
“, 2018), with links to negative psychological outcomes (Cunningham et al., 2019).”
BackgroundPerkins, T., Hayes, S., & Talbot, D. (2021) · Obesities · doi:10.3390/obesities1030017 · Cited by 15 · see citing works
Klimek, P., Convertino, A. D., Gonzales, M., Roesch, S. C., & Blashill, A. J. (2021) · Psychology of Sexual Orientation and Gender Diversity · doi:10.1037/sgd0000472 · Cited by 14 · see citing works
Talbot, D., & Mahlberg, J. (2022) · Australian Psychologist · doi:10.1080/00050067.2022.2033951 · Cited by 11 · see citing works
Talbot, D., Mahlberg, J., Cunningham, M. L., Pinkus, R. T., & Szabó, M. (2022) · Journal of Clinical Psychology · doi:10.1002/jclp.23420 · Cited by 8 · see citing works
Self-citationXiao, Y., Barnhart, W. R., Wu, S., Jiang, Z., Nagata, J. M., & He, J. (2025) · Body Image · doi:10.1016/j.bodyim.2025.101933 · Cited by 7 · see citing works
De, E. F., Grassi, M., & Blas, L. D. (2023) · Assessment · doi:10.1177/10731911231162355 · Cited by 7 · see citing works
Henriksen, H. A., Rozzell‐Voss, K. N., Pennesi, J., Askew, A. J., Convertino, A. D., & Blashill, A. J. (2024) · Body Image · doi:10.1016/j.bodyim.2024.101822 · Cited by 6 · see citing works
Cheng, L., Xu, Y., Barnhart, W. R., Gaggiano, C. M., Nagata, J. M., & He, J. (2024) · Body Image · doi:10.1016/j.bodyim.2024.101806 · Cited by 6 · see citing works
Hater, L., Schulte, J., Geukes, K., Buhlmann, U., & Back, M. D. (2021) · PLoS ONE · doi:10.1371/journal.pone.0253187 · Cited by 6 · see citing works
Lin, X., Hua, G., Wang, R., & Wu, Y. (2022) · Personality and Individual Differences · doi:10.1016/j.paid.2022.111950 · Cited by 6 · see citing works
Psychological correlates of body dissatisfaction in Swiss youth over a one-year study-period
Müller, V. M., Forrer, F., Meyer, A. H., & Munsch, S. (2024) · Frontiers in Psychology · doi:10.3389/fpsyg.2023.1269364 · Cited by 6 · see citing works
Zhu, L. Y., Breddy, T. N., Sahlan, R. N., Blomquist, K. K., & Bodell, L. P. (2025) · Eating Behaviors · doi:10.1016/j.eatbeh.2025.101973 · Cited by 5 · see citing works
Mapping features of pathological exercise using hierarchical‐dimensional modeling
Dreier, M. J., Coniglio, K., & Selby, E. A. (2020) · International Journal of Eating Disorders · doi:10.1002/eat.23406 · Cited by 5 · see citing works
Escandón‐Nagel, N., Garrido-Rubilar, G., Hernández-Oyarce, F., & Muñoz-Pérez, C. (2021) · Revista chilena de nutrición · doi:10.4067/s0717-75182021000500669 · Cited by 5 · see citing works
Marashi, M., Sabiston, C. M., Arbour‐Nicitopoulos, K. P., & Mack, D. E. (2025) · International Journal of Sport and Exercise Psychology · doi:10.1080/1612197x.2025.2584547 · Cited by 2 · see citing works
Cowley, E. S., Tinoco, A., & Schneider, J. (2026) · Psychology of sport and exercise · doi:10.1016/j.psychsport.2026.103096 · Cited by 1 · see citing works
A content analysis of muscularity research, part 1: Research strategy and participants’ demographics
Lennon, S. J., & Johnson, K. K. P. (2022) · Fashion Style & Popular Culture · doi:10.1386/fspc_00109_1
Hater, L., Schulte, J., Utesch, K., Buhlmann, U., & Back, M. D. (2021) · doi:10.31234/osf.io/zdn46
여성 운동선수, 무용수 및 일반대학생 간 에너지 결핍, 월경장애, 골밀도 및 건강체력의 비교*
이, 승., 최, 고., & 이, 만. (2024) · 한국체육학회지 · doi:10.23949/kjpe.2024.11.63.6.42
Interpersonal Functioning and Problematic Exercise Behaviours in Undergraduate Men
Kwan, M. Y., Bardin, A., Lee, A. H., & Gordon, K. H. (2025) · European Eating Disorders Review · doi:10.1002/erv.70051
Muscularity-Oriented Eating Test (MOET)
Murray, S. B. (2025) · Cambridge University Press eBooks · doi:10.1017/9781009398275.099
Self-citation
- Authors
- Cunningham, M. L., Szabo, M., Kambanis, P. E., Murray, S. B., Thomas, J. J., Eddy, K. T., Franko, D. L., & Griffiths, S.
- Affiliations
- The University of Sydney (AU)
- School of Psychology University of Sydney Sydney Australia
- University of Wyoming (US)
- University of California, San Francisco (US)
- Harvard University (US)
- Northeastern University (US)
- The University of Melbourne (AU)
- Corresponding author
- Cunningham, Mitchell L.
- ORCID
- Venue
- International Journal of Eating Disorders
- Publisher
- Wiley
- Published
- 2019-10-14
- Volume
- 52
- Issue
- 11
- Pages
- 1326-1331
- ISSN
- 0276-3478 (ISSN-L)
- 1098-108X
- OpenAlex
- W2979564930
- Cited by
- 35
- References
- 30
- Citations by year
- 2026: 1 · 2025: 5 · 2024: 6 · 2023: 1 · 2022: 8 · 2021: 10 · 2020: 4
- FWCI
- 6.42
- Type
- journal article
- Language
- en
- Open access
- closed
- Locations
- International Journal of Eating Disorders (publishedVersion)
- PubMed (publishedVersion)
- Minerva Access (University of Melbourne) (submittedVersion)
- Funders
- Lawrence J. and Anne Rubenstein Charitable Foundation 2019 Summer Research Fellowship
- Australian Government Research Training Program Scholarship
- Topics
- Social Sciences › Psychology › Clinical Psychology › Eating Disorders and Behaviors
- Social Sciences › Psychology › Clinical Psychology › Body Image and Dysmorphia Studies
- Health Sciences › Nursing › Nutrition and Dietetics › Nutrition, Health and Food Behavior
- Keywords
- drive for muscularity, women, eating disorder symptoms, depression, anxiety, stress, body image, female university students
- MeSH terms
- Adolescent, Adult, Body Composition, Body Image, Female, Humans, Middle Aged, Muscle, Skeletal, Young Adult
About these checks
Registry, retraction, Cites and statistics results are computed, not judged, with one exception: a printed reference that no index lists is read once by a model before it counts as a citation error. Claims are extracted by a model and kept only when their quote appears verbatim in the text; each cited source is then checked, with a model’s help, for whether it says what the claim relies on. Those verdicts can be wrong — read the claim’s quote and the cited source before relying on one.
Statistics and arithmetic are recomputed, not judged.
Confidence bands are shown only for fields calibrated on our annotated test set. None is calibrated yet, so no band is shown.
What counts as a claim ›How we measure confidence ›How we check this ›
Are you an author, or do you see a problem with this page? Request a review
