CoChat
Sign Up
Cited by 15Evolutionary Psychology and Human BehaviorEating Disorders and BehaviorsGender Roles and Identity Studies

The degree to which the cultural ideal is internalized predicts judgments of male and female physical attractiveness

Open access
Ridley, Bethany J., Cornelissen, Piers L., Maalin, Nadia, Mohamed, Sophie, Kramer, Robin S. S., McCarty, Kristofor, Tovée, Martin J.·2022·Frontiers in Psychology
DOI 10.3389/fpsyg.2022.980277PMC PMC9626828
Open this paper in CoChat — free accountOpen PDF

Abstract

We used attractiveness judgements as a proxy to visualize the ideal female and male body for male and female participants and investigated how individual differences in the internalization of cultural ideals influence these representations. In the first of two studies, male and female participants judged the attractiveness of 242 male and female computer-generated bodies which varied independently in muscle and adipose. This allowed us to map changes in attractiveness across the complete body composition space, revealing single peaks for the attractiveness of both men and women. In the second study, we asked our participants to choose the most attractive male and female bodies in a method of adjustment task in which they could independently vary muscle and adipose to create the most attractive body. We asked whether individual differences in internalization of cultural ideals, drive for muscularity, eating disorder symptomatology and depressive symptoms could systematically shift the location of peak attractiveness in body composition space. We found a clear preference by both genders for a male body with high muscle and low adipose, and a toned, low adipose female body. The degree of internalization of cultural ideals predicted large individual differences in the composition of the most attractive bodies.

AI snapshot

Written from the paper’s full text.

TL;DR

Across two studies using computer-generated bodies varying independently in muscle and adipose, both men and women preferred male bodies with high muscle and low adipose and female bodies with low adipose and some muscle. Individual differences in internalization of athletic/muscular cultural ideals systematically shifted the most attractive body toward higher muscle and lower fat.

Key findings

  • In Study 1, participants rated 242 CGI bodies (121 female, 121 male). The final model explained 37% of variance in attractiveness ratings for female images (f² = 0.59) and 62.6% for male images (f² = 1.67); no fixed effects beyond adipose and muscle mass were retained.
  • In Study 2, the method-of-adjustment model explained 63.7% of variance (f² = 1.75). Across images, peak attractiveness was associated with higher muscle mass (M = 48.88 kg, SE = 1.01) than adipose mass (M = 12.54 kg, SE = 0.51).
  • Men’s most attractive images had more muscle (M = 49.85 kg, SE = 1.42) than women’s (M = 47.84 kg, SE = 1.45), while women’s most attractive images had more adipose (M = 13.15 kg, SE = 0.71) than men’s (M = 11.97 kg, SE = 0.72).
  • Greater SATAQ athletic internalization predicted lower preferred body fat and higher preferred muscle for both male and female images; e.g., at BMI 20, male SATAQ athletic score 5 corresponded to 14.0 kg adipose and 55.0 kg muscle, while score 25 corresponded to 6.0 kg adipose and 68.0 kg muscle.

Methods

  • Study 1: 69 White female and 69 White male participants rated 121 female and 121 male 3D CGI bodies, varying in 0–55 kg adipose (5.5 kg steps) and 0–75 kg muscle (7.5 kg steps), on a 1–10 attractiveness scale.
  • Study 2: 65 White female and 65 White male participants completed a method-of-adjustment task, independently varying muscle and adipose to choose the most attractive male and female bodies; psychometric measures included SATAQ-4, EDE-Q, DMS, and BDI.
  • Analyses used linear mixed effects models and multivariate multiple regression in SAS PROC MIXED, with model selection by AICc; age, rater sex, BMI, and psychometric scores were tested as predictors.

Limitations

  • The paper states that “most attractive” was assumed to be synonymous with “ideal,” and that first-person versus third-person ideals may differ, especially for men; it also notes that the stimulus set’s underlying scanned sample would ideally be larger and cover a wider body-composition range, and that the modelling does not treat skeletal structure, body fat, and skeletal muscle entirely independently.
  • The paper reports a technical error on Pavlovia.org: the second block of Study 2 method-of-adjustment trials was not saved, so analysis used only the first block.
  • Evident from the text: samples were opportunity-based, exclusively White, and not powered via formal calculation; male participants were older on average, partly due to Prolific recruitment, though age was included as a covariate.

Model-written summary. Check it against the paper before relying on it.

Integrity signals

Registry

Crossref · 10.3389/fpsyg.2022.980277

Cites

127 of 128 references verified1 citation errors · 0 not checkable

Statistics

Claims the paper makes

17 of 82 cited sources checked · 8 supported · 0 flagged · accuracy not yet measured

  • Premisereasoning

    Previous studies have assumed that a particular body shape signals a particular composition, but this is likely a false assumption.

    “So, although previous studies have assumed that a particular body shape signals a particular composition (Singh, 1993; Maisey et al., 1999; Fan et al., 2005; Hönekopp et al., 2007; Gardner and Brown, 2010; Sell et al., 2017), this is likely a false assumption.”
    Quote in the paperSubstantial claim1 of 3 sources checked
    • cites Singh, 1993 source
    • cites Maisey et al., 1999 source
    • cites Fan et al., 2005 source
  • Premisecitation

    BMI is not an accurate index of body fat.

    “First, BMI is not an accurate index of body fat [see (Gardner and Brown, 2010; Groves et al., 2019)].”
    Quote in the paperSubstantial claim1 of 2 sources checked
    • cites Gardner and Brown, 2010 source
    • cites Groves et al., 2019 source
  • Premisecitation

    Differences in BMI across individuals are driven by a combination of both body fat and skeletal muscle mass, i.e., body composition.

    “The problem here is that differences in BMI across individuals are driven by a combination of both body fat and skeletal muscle mass, i.e., body composition (Sturman et al., 2017).”
    Quote in the paperSubstantial claim1 of 1 sources checked
    • cites Sturman et al., 2017 source

      The paper’s Abstract says fat and muscle together constitute body composition and that both are positively related to body size. It does not specifically establish how differences in BMI across individuals are attributable to each component; its statement is about body size more generally. No page number is available in our copy. (LLM, conf=0.82)

      Experimental — accuracy not yet measured
  • Premisecitation

    There is some evidence from the face perception literature that an average face, one closer to the population mean, is consistently rated as being attractive.

    “There is some evidence from the face perception literature that an average face, one closer to the population mean, is consistently rated as being attractive (Rhodes et al., 2000; Valentine et al., 2004; Potter and Corneille, 2008).”
    Quote in the paperSubstantial claim2 of 3 sources checked
    • cites Rhodes et al., 2000 source
    • cites Valentine et al., 2004 source
    • cites Potter and Corneille, 2008 source

      The Discussion reports that faces with more average features were rated as more attractive across the face sets studied. But it explicitly limits the relationship to proximity to each face’s own-group prototype, not a general population mean; it also notes that only Caucasian participants were studied. (LLM, conf=0.87)

      Experimental — accuracy not yet measured
  • Findingown data

    Attractiveness ratings across the complete body composition space reveal single peaks for the attractiveness of both men and women.

    “revealing single peaks for the attractiveness of both men and women.”
    Quote in the paperSubstantial claim
  • Classified as probably not a substantial claim. 45
  • May combine two claims. 23

  • Probably not a substantial claim: may not pass S3 (load-bearing).

    Premisecitation

    After viewing fitspiration content, men are more likely to engage in excessive exercise and to take anabolic steroids with potential negative health outcomes.

    “After viewing such content, men are more likely to engage in excessive exercise and to take anabolic steroids with potential negative health outcomes (Cafri et al., 2006; Horwitz et al., 2019; Mossman and Pacey, 2019; Tiggemann and Anderberg, 2020).”
    Quote in the paperNot a substantial claim2 of 3 sources checked
    • cites Cafri et al., 2006 source
    • cites Horwitz et al., 2019 source

      The Abstract and Discussion report adverse health outcomes among male anabolic-steroid users, including higher mortality and more hospital admissions than controls. The paper does not establish that viewing fitspiration content makes men more likely to exercise excessively or take steroids; it studied health outcomes among users identified through fitness-centre doping tests. No page numbers are available in our copy. (LLM, conf=0.88)

      Experimental — accuracy not yet measured
    • cites Mossman and Pacey, 2019 source

      The paper’s abstract links media-associated ideals of muscularity with body enhancement and anabolic-androgenic steroid abuse in men, and describes serious health consequences of steroid abuse. It does not say that viewing fitspiration content makes men more likely to exercise excessively or take steroids. The retrieved abstract has no page label; the copy lists the letter as appearing on pp. 231–232. (LLM, conf=0.84)

      Experimental — accuracy not yet measured

  • Probably not a substantial claim: may not pass S3 (load-bearing).

    Premisecitation

    The muscular ideal is now further extended by hyper muscular male, low adipose bodies in fitspiration content posted on social media.

    “It is also now further extended by the hyper muscular male, low adipose bodies in fitspiration content posted on social media (Carrotte et al., 2017; Tiggemann and Zaccardo, 2018).”
    Quote in the paperNot a substantial claim1 of 2 sources checked
    • cites Carrotte et al., 2017 source

      The Discussion’s Principal Findings say that male subjects in social-media fitspiration posts were highly muscular and nearly always had visible abdominal muscles. That supports the muscular-ideal description, but the paper does not establish that the subjects had low adiposity; it says male posts placed little emphasis on thinness or weight loss. The Results’ Gendered Analysis rates thinness and muscularity, not body fat. (LLM, conf=0.82)

      Experimental — accuracy not yet measured
    • cites Tiggemann and Zaccardo, 2018 source

  • Probably not a substantial claim: may not pass S3 (load-bearing).

    Premisecitation

    For several decades, the Western ideal female body has emphasized a low body mass index (BMI).

    “For several decades, the Western ideal female body has emphasized a low body mass index (BMI; Swami et al., 2010; Crossley et al., 2012).”
    Quote in the paperNot a substantial claim1 of 2 sources checked
    • cites Swami et al., 2010 source
    • cites Crossley et al., 2012 source

      The Discussion section ‘What is the Ideal Female Body Size and Shape?’ reports a low ideal BMI among the study’s participants and cites earlier studies suggesting an ideal BMI of 18–20 for Western observers. Our copy does not establish that this ideal has persisted for several decades; the study itself concerns a relatively young group. (LLM, conf=0.83)

      Experimental — accuracy not yet measured

  • Probably not a substantial claim: may not pass S3 (load-bearing). May combine two claims.

    Premisecitation

    The Western ideal female body has become exaggerated in the ultra slim bodies found in fashion models and in social media trends of thinspiration and bonespiration.

    “This has become exaggerated in the ultra slim bodies found in fashion models (Tovée et al., 1997; Jestratijevic et al., 2020), and in its most extreme form has manifested in the social media trends of thinspiration and bonespiration (Talbot et al., 2017).”
    Quote in the paperNot a substantial claim1 of 3 sources checked
    • cites Tovée et al., 1997 source
    • cites Jestratijevic et al., 2020 source
    • cites Talbot et al., 2017 source

  • Probably not a substantial claim: may not pass S3 (load-bearing).

    Premisecitation

    Body image and appearance is an important concern for most men and women.

    “Body image and appearance is an important concern for most men and women (Olivardia et al., 2004; Kelley et al., 2010; Runfola et al., 2013).”
    Quote in the paperNot a substantial claim1 of 3 sources checked
    • cites Olivardia et al., 2004 source
    • cites Kelley et al., 2010 source
    • cites Runfola et al., 2013 source

      The Introduction reports that 69–84% of U.S. women exhibit body dissatisfaction, supporting the claim for most women. The paper studies women and does not establish that body image and appearance are an important concern for most men; no page number is available in our copy. (LLM, conf=0.88)

      Experimental — accuracy not yet measured

  • May combine two claims.

    Premisecitation

    In any reasonably large sample of men or women, muscle mass and body fat show a positive correlation across the sample, but within narrow BMI bands the relationship between muscle and adipose mass inverts and becomes negatively correlated.

    “In any reasonably large sample of men or women, this relationship shows a positive correlation across the sample. However, if the data are subdivided into narrow ranges of BMI, then the direction of the relationship between muscle and adipose mass, within each narrow BMI band, inverts and becomes negatively correlated.”
    Quote in the paperSubstantial claim1 of 1 sources checked
    • cites Maalin et al., 2021 source

  • Classified as probably not a substantial claim.

    Study design and conductcitation

    The sets of stimuli were created using techniques that produce bodies biometrically calibrated for body composition.

    “The sets of stimuli were created using the techniques outlined by Maalin et al. (2021), which produces bodies biometrically calibrated for body composition.”
    Quote in the paperSubstantial claim1 of 1 sources checked
    • cites Maalin et al. (2021) source

  • Probably not a substantial claim: may not pass S3 (load-bearing).

    Study design and conductcitation

    The techniques of Maalin et al. (2021) allow creation of 3D computer-generated models of bodies that substantially improve the accuracy and precision with which assessments of body size and shape can be made.

    “This allows the creation of 3D computer-generated models of bodies that substantially improve the accuracy and precision with which assessments of body size and shape can be made.”
    Quote in the paperNot a substantial claim1 of 1 sources checked
    • cites Maalin et al. (2021) source

      The Abstract (page unavailable) says the method creates 3D computer-generated bodies and that the approach *should* substantially improve the accuracy and precision of self-assessments in obese individuals and people with eating disorders. The citing sentence presents that anticipated improvement as established and omits those population limits. The Methods comparison (page unavailable) shows better 3D-shape prediction than a BMI model, not a measured improvement in assessment accuracy or precision. (LLM, conf=0.87)

      Experimental — accuracy not yet measured

  • Probably not a substantial claim: may not pass S2 (checkable), S3 (load-bearing). May combine two claims.

    Study design and conductnone given

    The overall sample size of scanned bodies used by Maalin et al. (2021) would ideally be larger and cover a wider range of body composition.

    “First, the overall sample size of scanned bodies used by Maalin et al. (2021) would ideally be larger and cover a wider range of body composition.”
    Quote in the paperNot a substantial claim1 of 1 sources checked
    • cites Maalin et al., 2021 source

  • May combine two claims.

    Premisecitation

    Stice et al. (2011) found amplification effects (interactions) between high body dissatisfaction and high depressive symptoms, as well as low body dissatisfaction and high self-reported dieting, leading to increased risk of developing eating disorders.

    “They found amplification effects (interactions) between high body dissatisfaction and high depressive symptoms, as well as low body dissatisfaction and high self-reported dieting, leading to increased risk of developing eating disorders.”
    Quote in the paperNot a substantial claim1 of 1 sources checked
    • cites Stice et al. (2011) source

  • Classified as probably not a substantial claim.

    Premisecitation

    Evolutionary psychology theory predicts that a heterosexual individual will have an accurate idea of what the opposite gender considers attractive, to allow them to judge their own relative attractiveness with respect to their peer group, and match this with the attractiveness of a potential partner.

    “Evolutionary psychology theory predicts that a heterosexual individual will have an accurate idea of what the opposite gender considers attractive, to allow them to judge their own relative attractiveness with respect to their peer group, and match this with the attractiveness of a potential partner (Buss and Schmitt, 2019).”
    Quote in the paperSubstantial claim1 of 1 sources checked
    • cites Buss and Schmitt, 2019 source

      Split into 2 atoms — 0 confirmed, 2 partially supported, 0 disputed, 0 misattributed, 0 unverifiable. Expand the claim to see per-atom verdicts.

      Experimental — accuracy not yet measured

  • May combine two claims.

    Findingcitation

    The effect size f2 for the overall model for images of females in Experiment 1 is 0.59, indicating a large effect.

    “In the present study, f 2 = 0.59 for the overall model for images of females in Experiment 1. Guidelines for interpretation of f 2 indicate that 0.02 is a small effect, 0.15 is a medium effect, and 0.35 is a large effect (Cohen, 1992), indicating that the present effect is large.”
    Quote in the paperSubstantial claim0 of 1 sources checked
    • cites Cohen, 1992 source

  • May combine two claims.

    Findingown data

    For male images, the most attractive body composition peak is at higher muscularity than for female images but similar adiposity, with a similar shape and little evidence of secondary peaks, shelves, or ridges.

    “The equivalent averages and fitted data for images of men in Figures 3C,D suggest a similarly shaped peak at higher muscularity than for images of women, but similar adiposity. Again, there is little evidence for secondary peaks, shelves or ridges.”
    Quote in the paperSubstantial claim

  • May combine two claims.

    Findingown data

    For female images, the most attractive body composition lies at a broad maximum, with attractiveness declining smoothly in all directions and no compelling evidence for secondary peaks, shelves, or ridges.

    “The averaged attractiveness ratings for female images in Figure 3A, and the fitted data in Figure 3B, suggest that the women rated most attractive inhabit a broad maximum in body composition space, like a hilltop. In all directions from this peak, for 360°, attractiveness smoothly declines. There is no compelling evidence for secondary peaks, shelves or ridges in this space.”
    Quote in the paperSubstantial claim

  • May combine two claims.

    Findingown data

    Significant three-way interactions were found between body composition, image sex, and rater sex, and between body composition, image sex, and BMI.

    “We also found significant three-way interactions between body composition, image sex, and rater sex [V = 0.072, F(2, 123) = 4.76, p = 0.01] as well as between body composition, image sex, and BMI [V = 0.063, F(2, 123) = 4.12, p = 0.02].”
    Quote in the paperNot a substantial claim

  • May combine two claims.

    Findingreasoning

    We did find subtle gender differences in how a particular sex is judged, but these are small enough to be questionable if they cannot be visually distinguished.

    “Like these latter studies, we did find subtle gender differences in how a particular sex is judged, but as discussed above, these are small enough for them to be questionable if they cannot be visually distinguished.”
    Quote in the paperNot a substantial claim

  • May combine two claims.

    Findingown data

    Both genders prefer male bodies with high muscularity and low-adipose content, and both genders prefer female bodies with low adipose content and a significant amount of muscle.

    “Both genders prefer male bodies with high muscularity and low-adipose content, and both genders prefer female bodies with low adipose content and a significant amount of muscle.”
    Quote in the paperSubstantial claim

  • May combine two claims.

    Findingown data

    On average, both genders show a clear preference for a male body with high muscle and low adipose, and a toned, low adipose female body.

    “The results from the two studies reported here show a clear preference, on average, by both genders for a male body with high muscle and low adipose, and a toned, low adipose female body.”
    Quote in the paperSubstantial claim

  • Probably not a substantial claim: may not pass S3 (load-bearing). May combine two claims.

    Premisecitation

    The athletic female body type is potentially harder to achieve than a thin body and can lead to greater dissatisfaction than the previous thin female ideal.

    “This body type is potentially even harder to achieve than a thin body and can lead to greater dissatisfaction than the previous thin female ideal (Uhlmann et al., 2018), with links to negative psychological outcomes (Cunningham et al., 2019).”
    Quote in the paperNot a substantial claim0 of 2 sources checked
    • cites Uhlmann et al., 2018 source
    • cites Cunningham et al., 2019 source

  • Probably not a substantial claim: may not pass S3 (load-bearing).

    Premisecitation

    The tripartite influence model emphasizes social pressure from family, peers, and media as the principal sociocultural explanation for body ideals.

    “The principal sociocultural explanation, the tripartite influence model, emphasizes the importance of social pressure derived from three sources: family, peers, and media (Thompson et al., 1999; Shroff and Thompson, 2006).”
    Quote in the paperNot a substantial claim0 of 2 sources checked
    • cites Thompson et al., 1999 source
    • cites Shroff and Thompson, 2006 source

  • Probably not a substantial claim: may not pass S3 (load-bearing). May combine two claims.

    Premisecitation

    In Western society, poor body image is largely attributable to cultural emphasis on appearance and attractiveness and to idealized media images pressuring women to achieve a comparable aesthetic appearance.

    “In Western society, much of the blame for poor body image can be attributed to the cultural emphasis on appearance and the importance attached to attractiveness on the one hand, together with the promulgation of idealized media images that place pressure on women to achieve a comparable aesthetic appearance on the other hand (Levine and Murnen, 2009).”
    Quote in the paperNot a substantial claim0 of 1 sources checked
    • cites Levine and Murnen, 2009 source

  • Probably not a substantial claim: may not pass S3 (load-bearing).

    Interpretationreasoning

    Body dissatisfaction arises because most people do not match appearance ideals but feel pressure to conform to this archetype.

    “Body dissatisfaction would thus arise because most people do not match these appearance ideals but feel pressure to conform to this archetype.”
    Quote in the paperNot a substantial claim

  • Probably not a substantial claim: may not pass S3 (load-bearing).

    Premisecitation

    Ridgeway and Tylka (2005) used an open-ended interview technique to show that the ideal male body derived from five key components: overall body muscularity, overall body leanness, being tall, V-shape torso, and a muscled abdominal region.

    “In the verbal domain, for example, Ridgeway and Tylka (2005) used an open-ended interview technique to show that the ideal male body derived from five key components—overall body muscularity, overall body leanness, being tall, V-shape torso, and a muscled abdominal region.”
    Quote in the paperNot a substantial claim0 of 1 sources checked
    • cites Ridgeway and Tylka (2005) source

  • May combine two claims.

    Premisecitation

    Undesirable male body characteristics include fat, short stature, and low body fat coupled with low muscle tone leading to small girth.

    “Undesirable body characteristics included fat, short stature, and low body fat coupled with low muscle tone leading to small girth [see also (Pope et al., 2000a,b; Grogan and Richards, 2002)].”
    Quote in the paperNot a substantial claim0 of 2 sources checked
    • cites Pope et al., 2000a,b

      Couldn’t be matched to a paper in Crossref, so it can’t be checked.

    • cites Grogan and Richards, 2002 source

  • May combine two claims.

    Premisecitation

    The corresponding ideal body for men in Western society is characterized by both a high degree of upper body muscularity (the V-shaped torso) and a low degree of body fat.

    “The corresponding ideal body for men in Western society is characterized by both a high degree of upper body muscularity (the V-shaped torso) and a low degree of body fat, with the latter enhancing the salience of the former (Maisey et al., 1999; Leit et al., 2002; Cafri et al., 2005; Ridgeway and Tylka, 2005; McCreary, 2007; Murray et al., 2017).”
    Quote in the paperNot a substantial claim0 of 3 sources checked
    • cites Maisey et al., 1999 source
    • cites Leit et al., 2002 source
    • cites Cafri et al., 2005 source

  • Classified as probably not a substantial claim.

    Premisecitation

    Internalization, together with social comparison processes, is proposed to link societal messages of a specific body ideal to the development of body dissatisfaction.

    “It is this internalization, together with social comparison processes, which are proposed to be the link between the societal message of a specific body ideal and the development of body dissatisfaction (Stice et al., 2001; Tiggemann, 2003; Keery et al., 2004; Sypeck et al., 2006; Schaefer et al., 2015).”
    Quote in the paperSubstantial claim0 of 3 sources checked
    • cites Stice et al., 2001 source
    • cites Tiggemann, 2003 source
    • cites Keery et al., 2004 source

  • Probably not a substantial claim: may not pass S3 (load-bearing).

    Premisecitation

    More recently, the Western ideal female body has been compounded by an 'athletic' ideal that portrays a body shape that is very slender, toned and muscular.

    “More recently, this fixation on body fat has been compounded by the rise of the “athletic” ideal, epitomized by the fitspiration trend on social media, which portrays a body shape that is not only very slender, but also toned and muscular (Benton and Karazsia, 2015; Tiggemann and Zaccardo, 2015, 2018; Boepple and Thompson, 2016; Carrotte et al., 2017; Bozsik et al., 2018).”
    Quote in the paperNot a substantial claim0 of 3 sources checked
    • cites Benton and Karazsia, 2015 source
    • cites Tiggemann and Zaccardo, 2015, 2018

      Couldn’t be matched to a paper in Crossref, so it can’t be checked.

    • cites Boepple and Thompson, 2016 source

  • Probably not a substantial claim: may not pass S3 (load-bearing).

    Study design and conductcitation

    In the current sample, internal consistency of the EDE-Q was 0.94.

    “The internal consistency of the EDE-Q in this current sample was 0.94 (Fairburn and Beglin, 1994).”
    Quote in the paperNot a substantial claim0 of 1 sources checked
    • cites Fairburn and Beglin, 1994 source

  • Probably not a substantial claim: may not pass S3 (load-bearing).

    Premisecitation

    The DMS has shown consistently acceptable reliability in both male and female respondents, with alpha reliability estimates ranging from 0.85 to 0.91 in males and above 0.80 in females.

    “The DMS has shown consistently acceptable reliability in both male and female respondents, with alpha reliability estimates ranging from 0.85 to 0.91 in males and above 0.80 in females (McCreary, 2007).”
    Quote in the paperNot a substantial claim0 of 1 sources checked
    • cites McCreary, 2007 source

  • Probably not a substantial claim: may not pass S3 (load-bearing).

    Study design and conductown data

    In the current sample, Cronbach's alpha for SATAQ-4 was 0.89.

    “In the current sample, Cronbach’s alpha for SATAQ-4 was 0.89.”
    Quote in the paperNot a substantial claim

  • Probably not a substantial claim: may not pass S3 (load-bearing).

    Study design and conductcitation

    In the current sample, Cronbach's alpha for the BDI was 0.92.

    “Cronbach’s alpha for the BDI in the current sample was 0.92 (Beck et al., 1961).”
    Quote in the paperNot a substantial claim0 of 1 sources checked
    • cites Beck et al., 1961 source

  • May combine two claims.

    Interpretationown data

    The locations for most attractive male and female bodies in body composition space, on average, appear to be in good agreement between Studies 1 and 2, suggesting good convergence between the two measurement methods using the same stimulus set.

    “The locations for most attractive male and female bodies in body composition space, on average, appear to be in good agreement between Studies 1 and 2. This suggests good convergence between the two measurement methods, using the same stimulus set.”
    Quote in the paperNot a substantial claim

  • May combine two claims.

    Interpretationreasoning

    A main effect of SATAQ media would cause the whole fitted surface to rise systematically without changing its overall shape, and an interaction between adipose mass and SATAQ media would merely tilt the whole surface.

    “Essentially, a main effect of SATAQ media would cause the whole fitted surface to “rise” systematically, but not change its overall shape, with increasing SATAQ scores. Even an interaction between adipose mass and SATAQ media would merely tilt the whole surface.”
    Quote in the paperSubstantial claim

  • Classified as probably not a substantial claim.

    Premisecitation

    It is unclear whether the images participants were shown in prior studies necessarily align precisely with any individual's own internal visual representation of a thin/athletic/muscular ideal.

    “While this study clearly shows that a set of appropriately defined experimental stimuli can have an effect on body dissatisfaction in the predicted direction, it is unclear whether the images that participants were shown necessarily align precisely with any individual’s own internal visual representation of a thin/athletic/muscular ideal.”
    Quote in the paperSubstantial claim0 of 1 sources checked
    • cites Robinson et al. (2017) source

  • Probably not a substantial claim: may not pass S3 (load-bearing).

    Study design and conductcitation

    Final sample size was determined by the time allocated to the first author to collect the data.

    “Final sample size was determined by the time allocated to the first author to collect the data (Lakens, 2022).”
    Quote in the paperNot a substantial claim0 of 1 sources checked
    • cites Lakens, 2022 source

  • May combine two claims.

    Premisecitation

    Different individuals can have the same BMI but different body composition and therefore different body shapes.

    “They illustrate how different individuals can have the same BMI but different body composition (i.e., higher muscle mass with lower body fat, or vice versa), and therefore different body shapes (Yajnik and Yudkin, 2004; Mullie et al., 2008).”
    Quote in the paperSubstantial claim0 of 2 sources checked
    • cites Yajnik and Yudkin, 2004 source
    • cites Mullie et al., 2008 source

  • Classified as probably not a substantial claim.

    Premisecitation

    Robinson et al. (2017) showed that a set of appropriately defined experimental stimuli can have an effect on body dissatisfaction in the predicted direction.

    “While this study clearly shows that a set of appropriately defined experimental stimuli can have an effect on body dissatisfaction in the predicted direction, it is unclear whether the images that participants were shown necessarily align precisely with any individual’s own internal visual representation of a thin/athletic/muscular ideal.”
    Quote in the paperSubstantial claim0 of 1 sources checked
    • cites Robinson et al. (2017) source

  • Probably not a substantial claim: may not pass S3 (load-bearing).

    Study design and conductcitation

    In the current sample, internal consistency for the DMS was 0.94.

    “Internal consistency for this measure in the current sample was 0.94 (McCreary and Sasse, 2000).”
    Quote in the paperNot a substantial claim0 of 1 sources checked
    • cites McCreary and Sasse, 2000 source

  • Probably not a substantial claim: may not pass S3 (load-bearing).

    Study design and conductown data

    The psychometric measures used in Study 2 had Cronbach's alpha values of 0.91, 0.95, 0.90, and 0.93.

    “The Cronbach’s alpha values for the psychometric measures were: 0.91, 0.95, 0.90, and 0.93, respectively.”
    Quote in the paperNot a substantial claim

  • Probably not a substantial claim: may not pass S3 (load-bearing). May combine two claims.

    Study design and conductown data

    A technical error on Pavlovia.org meant that the second block of MoA trials was not saved, so the analysis is based on the first block of trials only.

    “Unfortunately, a technical error on Pavlovia.org meant that the second block of MoA trials was not saved to file, therefore our analysis is based on the first block of trials only.”
    Quote in the paperNot a substantial claim

  • Probably not a substantial claim: may not pass S3 (load-bearing).

    Study design and conductown data

    Age was controlled for in the modelling of participants' responses in Study 2.

    “Although the mean age of males was higher, age was controlled for in the modelling of participants’ responses.”
    Quote in the paperNot a substantial claim

  • Probably not a substantial claim: may not pass S3 (load-bearing).

    Study design and conductnone given

    Age was included as a covariate when modelling participants' responses.

    “It is however important to note that age was included as a covariate when modelling participants’ responses.”
    Quote in the paperNot a substantial claim

  • Probably not a substantial claim: may not pass S3 (load-bearing).

    Premisenone given

    It is unclear how effective the calibration of the somatomorphic-matrix stimuli has been.

    “However, it is unclear just how effective the calibration of these stimuli has been.”
    Quote in the paperNot a substantial claim

  • Probably not a substantial claim: may not pass S3 (load-bearing).

    Interpretationnone given

    These studies are the first to use body stimuli calibrated directly based on 3D measures of body shape change as a function of measured body composition.

    “We would argue that these studies are the first to use body stimuli which are calibrated directly based on 3D measures of body shape change as a function of measured body composition.”
    Quote in the paperNot a substantial claim

  • Classified as probably not a substantial claim.

    Premisecitation

    Previous studies have used body scales which systematically vary combinations of muscle mass and adiposity in so-called somatomorphic matrices.

    “Previous studies have used body scales which systematically vary combinations of muscle mass and adiposity in so-called somatomorphic matrices [e.g., (Cafri and Thompson, 2004; Talbot et al., 2019)].”
    Quote in the paperSubstantial claim0 of 2 sources checked
    • cites Cafri and Thompson, 2004

      Couldn’t be matched to a paper in Crossref, so it can’t be checked.

    • cites Talbot et al., 2019 source

  • Probably not a substantial claim: may not pass S3 (load-bearing).

    Interpretationcitation

    If similar numerical criteria apply to the SATAQ-4 athletic/muscular subscale, a woman would need to have moved almost 70% of the way towards acquiring the SA 25 image as her internal visual representation of ideal/most attractive before exhibiting life altering changes in behavior.

    “If we make the assumption that similar numerical criteria might apply to the SATAQ-4 athletic/muscular subscale reported here, then a woman would need to have moved almost 70% of the way towards acquiring the SA 25 image in our data as her internal visual representation of “ideal”/“most attractive,” before exhibiting life altering changes in behavior.”
    Quote in the paperNot a substantial claim0 of 1 sources checked
    • cites Schaefer et al. (2019) source
    • The authors state this as an assumption: Similar numerical criteria might apply to the SATAQ-4 athletic/muscular subscale as to the SATAQ-4 thin/low body fat subscale.

  • Probably not a substantial claim: may not pass S3 (load-bearing).

    Study design and conductreasoning

    The modelling method, a combination of PCA and multiple regression, does not treat the three body compartments (skeletal structure, body fat, and skeletal muscle mass) entirely independently.

    “Second, the modelling method, again a combination of PCA and multiple regression, does not treat the three body compartments: skeletal structure, body fat, and skeletal muscle mass, entirely independently.”
    Quote in the paperNot a substantial claim

  • Probably not a substantial claim: may not pass S3 (load-bearing).

    Premisecitation

    The original somatomorphic matrix was a set of 100 line-drawn silhouettes.

    “The original somatomophic matrix was a set of 100 line drawn silhouettes (Gruber et al., 1999)”
    Quote in the paperNot a substantial claim0 of 1 sources checked
    • cites Gruber et al., 1999

      Couldn’t be matched to a paper in Crossref, so it can’t be checked.

  • Probably not a substantial claim: may not pass S3 (load-bearing). May combine two claims.

    Interpretationreasoning

    If differences between studies cannot be attributable solely to different measurement methods, then first- and third-party body ideals may not be the same, at least for men.

    “If it is true that these differences between studies cannot be attributable solely to the different measurement methods, then this does suggest that first- and third-party body ideals may not be the same, at least for men.”
    Quote in the paperNot a substantial claim

  • Probably not a substantial claim: may not pass S3 (load-bearing). May combine two claims.

    Premisecitation

    The hand-drawn somatomorphic-matrix bodies have been criticized for being of poor quality and providing limited information about musculature and tone.

    “These hand-drawn bodies have been criticized for being of poor quality and providing limited information about musculature and tone (Talbot et al., 2019).”
    Quote in the paperNot a substantial claim0 of 1 sources checked
    • cites Talbot et al., 2019 source

  • Probably not a substantial claim: may not pass S3 (load-bearing).

    Premisecitation

    Talbot et al. produced a CGI set of images based on the somatomorphic-matrix drawings with the addition of simulated muscle tone and shape.

    “To try and address this issue, Talbot et al. produced a CGI set of images based on this set of drawings with the addition of simulated muscle tone and shape”
    Quote in the paperNot a substantial claim0 of 1 sources checked
    • cites Talbot et al., 2019 source

  • May combine two claims.

    Premisecitation

    This is broadly consistent with previous studies which suggest the same attractiveness preferences for both genders, although some studies have found small differences.

    “This is broadly consistent with previous studies which suggest the same attractiveness preferences for both genders (Coetzee et al., 2011; Stephen and Perera, 2014), although some studies have found small differences (Demarest and Allen, 2000; Bergstrom et al., 2004; Grossbard et al., 2011; Crossley et al., 2012).”
    Quote in the paperNot a substantial claim0 of 3 sources checked
    • cites Coetzee et al., 2011 source
    • cites Stephen and Perera, 2014 source
    • cites Demarest and Allen, 2000 source

  • Classified as probably not a substantial claim.

    Premisecitation

    Some etiological theories propose multiple risk pathways for the development of eating disorders.

    “some etiological theories about the development of eating disorders propose multiple risk pathways (Thompson et al., 1999; Stice et al., 2001).”
    Quote in the paperSubstantial claim0 of 2 sources checked
    • cites Thompson et al., 1999 source
    • cites Stice et al., 2001 source

  • Probably not a substantial claim: may not pass S3 (load-bearing).

    Premisecitation

    Another approach has been to morph between bodies of high or low muscularity or adipose.

    “Another approach has been to morph between bodies of high or low muscularity or adipose (Brierley et al., 2016).”
    Quote in the paperNot a substantial claim0 of 1 sources checked
    • cites Brierley et al., 2016 source

  • Probably not a substantial claim: may not pass S3 (load-bearing).

    Study design and conductreasoning

    There is a degree of covariation of skeletal structure as muscle and adipose mass change.

    “As a consequence, there is a degree of covariation of skeletal structure as muscle and adipose mass change.”
    Quote in the paperNot a substantial claim

  • Probably not a substantial claim: may not pass S3 (load-bearing).

    Premisecitation

    The original somatomorphic matrix was subsequently simplified to a set of 34 line drawings.

    “which was subsequently simplified to a set of 34 line drawings (Cafri and Thompson, 2004)”
    Quote in the paperNot a substantial claim0 of 1 sources checked
    • cites Cafri and Thompson, 2004

      Couldn’t be matched to a paper in Crossref, so it can’t be checked.

  • Classified as probably not a substantial claim.

    Interpretationreasoning

    If this theory is correct, then there should be no gender difference in the judgement of either female or male beauty, as both sexes should use the same selection criteria for estimating attractiveness in a particular gender.

    “If this theory is correct, then there should be no gender difference in the judgement of either female or male beauty, as both sexes should use the same selection criteria for estimating attractiveness in a particular gender.”
    Quote in the paperSubstantial claim

  • Probably not a substantial claim: may not pass S3 (load-bearing). May combine two claims.

    Premisecitation

    Mohamed et al. (2021) found that increasing psychometric scores were associated with a desire for reduced body fat, increased muscularity, and increased muscle tone, but these effects were visually not as salient as the effects found in the current study.

    “While it is clear that increasing psychometric scores were associated with a desire for reduced body fat, increased muscularity, and increased muscle tone, these effects were visually not as salient as the effects we have found in the current study.”
    Quote in the paperNot a substantial claim0 of 1 sources checked
    • cites Mohamed et al. (2021) source

  • Probably not a substantial claim: may not pass S3 (load-bearing).

    Study design and conductnone given

    The participants provided their written informed consent to participate in this study.

    “The patients/participants provided their written informed consent to participate in this study.”
    Quote in the paperNot a substantial claim

  • Probably not a substantial claim: may not pass S3 (load-bearing).

    Study design and conductnone given

    The studies involving human participants were reviewed and approved by the Department of Psychology ethical committee at Northumbria University and the Business, Law and Social Sciences Faculty Academic Ethics Committee at Birmingham City University.

    “The studies involving human participants were reviewed and approved by The Department of Psychology ethical committee at Northumbria University and the Business, Law and Social Sciences Faculty Academic Ethics Committee at Birmingham City University.”
    Quote in the paperNot a substantial claim
60 of 60

  • The authors state this as an assumption.

    Maximally attractive and 'ideal' can be treated as synonymous.

    “To do this, we make the assumption that maximally attractive and “ideal” can be treated as synonymous.”

  • The authors state this as an assumption.

    “Most attractive” and “ideal” can be treated as synonymous.

    “In this study, we have assumed that “most attractive” and “ideal” can be treated as synonymous.”

  • The authors state this as an assumption.

    “Most attractive” corresponds to the ideal body shape represented in current Western culture and is a third-party reference frame.

    “Here, we assume that “most attractive” corresponds to the ideal body shape represented in our current Western culture and is therefore really a reference to other men’s and women’s body shapes: a third-party reference frame.”

  • The authors state this as an assumption.

    Similar numerical criteria might apply to the SATAQ-4 athletic/muscular subscale as to the SATAQ-4 thin/low body fat subscale.

    “If we make the assumption that similar numerical criteria might apply to the SATAQ-4 athletic/muscular subscale reported here”
4 of 4

Statistics recomputed

Every reported test result, recomputed from its test statistic and degrees of freedom. A result shows as not adding up only once an independent check has confirmed it.

  • ConsistentF(2, 123) = 17.06reported p < .0001 · recomputed p < .001

    “F(2, 123) = 17.06, p < .0001”

  • ConsistentF(2, 123) = 3.93reported p = .02 · recomputed p = .022

    “F(2, 123) = 3.93, p = .02”

  • ConsistentF(2, 123) = 4.25reported p = .02 · recomputed p = .016

    “F(2, 123) = 4.25, p = .02”

  • ConsistentF(2, 123) = 4.63reported p = .01 · recomputed p = .012

    “F(2, 123) = 4.63, p = .01”

  • ConsistentF(2, 123) = 3.65reported p = .03 · recomputed p = .029

    “F(2, 123) = 3.65, p = .03”

  • ConsistentF(2, 123) = 16.6reported p < .0001 · recomputed p < .001

    “F(2, 123) = 16.60, p < .0001”

  • ConsistentF(2, 123) = 4.76reported p = .01 · recomputed p = .010

    “F(2, 123) = 4.76, p = .01”

  • ConsistentF(2, 123) = 4.12reported p = .02 · recomputed p = .019

    “F(2, 123) = 4.12, p = .02”

8 of 8

Self-check

Percentages, sums and reported differences re-computed from the paper’s own numbers.

Each contradiction between two passages listed here was confirmed by an independent check.

  • Study 2 model variance is attributed to the wrong outcome

    Minor

    The Study 2 model's four outcomes are muscle and adipose masses at peak attractiveness. Its reported 63.7% explained variance therefore cannot be variance in attractiveness ratings.

  • Table 2 labels fixed-effect coefficients as random effects

    Minor

    Table 2 places the intercept and polynomial muscle and adipose coefficients under "Random effects," although the methods identify those terms as fixed effects. A separate random-effects section appears later in the same table.

2 of 2

Cites

Flagged first, then by citations

4 of the 132 references couldn’t be matched to a known paper.

Research works printed but not linked: 1

  1. Gruber, 1999, The development of the somatomorphic matrix: a bi-axial instrument for measuring body image in men and women, 217

Cited by

Sorted by citations

Related

Authors
Ridley, B. J., Cornelissen, P. L., Maalin, N., Mohamed, S., Kramer, R. S. S., McCarty, K., & Tovée, M. J.
Affiliations
  • Northumbria University (GB)
  • Birmingham City University (GB)
  • Aberdeen Royal Infirmary (GB)
  • University of Lincoln (GB)
Corresponding author
Tovée, Martin J.
ORCID
Venue
Frontiers in Psychology
Publisher
Frontiers Media SA
Published
2022-10-19
Volume
13
Pages
980277-980277
ISSN
1664-1078 (ISSN-L)
DOI
10.3389/fpsyg.2022.980277
PMC
PMC9626828
OpenAlex
W4306818193
Semantic Scholar
7083d807945ccb4eb8c51a45712bde7b3fe5e122
Cited by
15
References
132
Citations by year
2026: 1 · 2025: 5 · 2024: 7 · 2023: 2
FWCI
3.10
Type
journal article
Language
en
Open access
Licence
Locations
  • Frontiers in Psychology (publishedVersion, cc-by)
  • PubMed (publishedVersion)
  • Lincoln Repository (University of Lincoln) (acceptedVersion)
  • Northumbria Research Link (Northumbria University) (acceptedVersion)
  • BCU Open Access Repository (Birmingham City University) (acceptedVersion)
  • PubMed Central (submittedVersion, cc-by)
  • DOAJ (DOAJ: Directory of Open Access Journals) (submittedVersion, cc-by-sa)
  • Figshare (submittedVersion, cc-by)
Topics
  • Social Sciences › Psychology › Experimental and Cognitive Psychology › Evolutionary Psychology and Human Behavior
  • Social Sciences › Psychology › Clinical Psychology › Eating Disorders and Behaviors
  • Social Sciences › Gender Studies › Gender Roles and Identity Studies
Keywords
physical attractiveness, cultural ideals, body image, body composition, gender differences, drive for muscularity, eating disorder symptoms, depressive symptoms

About these checks

Registry, retraction, Cites and statistics results are computed, not judged, with one exception: a printed reference that no index lists is read once by a model before it counts as a citation error. Claims are extracted by a model and kept only when their quote appears verbatim in the text; each cited source is then checked, with a model’s help, for whether it says what the claim relies on. Those verdicts can be wrong — read the claim’s quote and the cited source before relying on one.

Claims read by deepseek-v4.1-flash under definition version 3 (extract-v3) on 2026-10-08.

Classified by jev-1.13-20260917 (gold-guideline-v0.2) on 2026-10-08.

Cited sources are checked by gpt-6-sol.

Statistics and arithmetic are recomputed, not judged.

Confidence bands are shown only for fields calibrated on our annotated test set. None is calibrated yet, so no band is shown.

What counts as a claim ›How we measure confidence ›How we check this ›

Are you an author, or do you see a problem with this page? Request a review