Keratin hydrogels support the sustained release of bioactive ciprofloxacin
Abstract
Keratins are naturally derived proteins that can be fabricated into several biomaterial forms including hydrogels. These materials are a potential polymeric system for several tissue engineering and regenerative medicine applications due to their ability to support cell attachment, proliferation, and migration. However, little is known regarding their ability to support sustained release of therapeutic agents. This report describes the use of keratin hydrogels for sustained release of the antibiotic ciprofloxacin, which may prove useful to traumatic injury applications that would benefit from materials promoting tissue regeneration while also preventing acute infection. Hydrogels were formed from keratins obtained by oxidative extraction and known as keratose. We found that keratose hydrogels released ∼60% of loaded ciprofloxacin over the first 10 days and that continued release was detectable over the course of 3 weeks. Released ciprofloxacin was bioactive, inhibiting growth of Staphylococcus aureus for 23 days in vitro and for 2 weeks in a mouse subcutaneous model. The rate of ciprofloxacin release was highly correlated with degradation of the keratin hydrogel and not consistent with simple diffusion. Further experiments indicated that ciprofloxacin binds to keratose through electrostatic interactions. These studies demonstrate the specific use of keratose hydrogels for the release of antibiotic and the potential for the more general use of this material in tissue engineering and regenerative medicine applications. © 2011 Wiley Periodicals, Inc. J Biomed Mater Res Part A:, 2011.
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Enzymatic Extraction of Bioactive and Self‐Assembling Wool Keratin for Biomedical Applications
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Binding Interactions of Keratin-Based Hair Fiber Extract to Gold, Keratin, and BMP-2
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Self-citationHalofuginone infused keratin hydrogel attenuates adhesions in a rodent cecal abrasion model.
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“Keratinwas extracted and prepared by an oxidative extraction process as previously described [18,19,23].”
BackgroundMethodInfluentialZhou, L.-T., Yang, G. Y., Yang, X., Cao, Z., & Zhou, M. (2014) · Environmental Science and Pollution Research · doi:10.1007/s11356-014-2513-8 · Cited by 34 · see citing works
“Some methods have been reported to dissolve keratin, mainly for wool sources, by using oxidizing or reducing reagents (Hamasaki et al. 2008; Saul et al. 2011), as well as ionic liquids (Li and Wang 2013).”
MethodComparative study of kerateine and keratose based composite nanofibers for biomedical applications
Yang, G. Y., Yao, Y., & Wang, X. (2017) · Materials Science and Engineering C · doi:10.1016/j.msec.2017.07.057 · Cited by 32 · see citing works
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“, 2013), drug delivery (Saul et al., 2011), haemostasis, and peripheral nerves repair (Wang et al.”
Human hair keratin-based biofilm for potent application to periodontal tissue regeneration
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“Recently it has been reported that 100% biodegradable packaging materials can be produced from renewable sources such as starch [2,6,14], proteins, cellulose, and rubber [15-20] and lipids [21-23].”
BackgroundHybrid antibacterial hydrogels based on PVP and keratin incorporated with lavender extract
Tajik, F., Eslahi, N., Rashidi, A., & Rad, M. M. (2021) · Journal of Polymer Research · doi:10.1007/s10965-021-02681-0 · Cited by 27 · see citing works
“Previous studies have found that keratin-based hydrogels can sustain the release of drugs and growth factors in correlation with their degradation [31, 43, 44].”
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Biopolymers and biocomposites: Nature’s tools for wound healing and tissue engineering
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“Keratin (KSO) was obtained by oxidative extraction of human hair and purified using a patented and controlled manufacturing process by KeraNetics, LLC (Winston-Salem, NC, USA) [42,43].”
MethodThe future perspectives of natural materials for pulmonary drug delivery and lung tissue engineering
Kim, S. Y., Wong, A. H. M., Neel, E. A. A., Chrzanowski, W., & Chan, H. (2014) · Expert Opinion on Drug Delivery · doi:10.1517/17425247.2015.993314 · Cited by 22 · see citing works
“The sustained drug release profile of ciprofloxacin from keratose hydrogels has been demonstrated to correlate with the hydrogel degradation rate [148].”
BackgroundIn vitro and in vivo Assessment of Keratose as a Novel Excipient of Paclitaxel Coated Balloons
Turner, E. A., Erwin, M. M., Atigh, M. K., Christians, U., Saul, J. M., & Yazdani, S. K. (2018) · Frontiers in Pharmacology · doi:10.3389/fphar.2018.00808 · Cited by 21 · see citing works
Self-citationKeratin-based matrices from wool fibers and human hair
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Keratose hydrogel for tissue regeneration and drug delivery
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Self-citationH omo‐ and heteropolymer self‐assembly of recombinant trichocytic keratins
Parker, R. N., Roth, K. L., Kim, C., McCord, J. P., Dyke, M. E. V., & Grove, T. Ž. (2017) · Biopolymers · doi:10.1002/bip.23037 · Cited by 18 · see citing works
Self-citationDesign of nanoconstructs that exhibit enhanced hemostatic efficiency and bioabsorbability
Eissa, R. A., Saafan, H. A., Ali, A. A., Ibrahim, K. M., Eissa, N. G., Hamad, M. A., Pang, C., Guo, H., Gao, H., Elsabahy, M., et al. (2022) · Nanoscale · doi:10.1039/d2nr02043b · Cited by 16 · see citing works
Cohen, D. J., Hyzy, S. L., Haque, S., Olson, L. C., Boyan, B. D., Saul, J. M., & Schwartz, Z. (2018) · Tissue Engineering Part A · doi:10.1089/ten.tea.2017.0471 · Cited by 15 · see citing works
“Although it is also possible that rhBMP-2 remains associated with the keratin after release, we have not found evidence of interaction between keratins and drug molecules after release.(44) Based on the low bioactivity, we also cannot rule out the possibility that more bioactive rhBMP-2 remains associated with the ker…”
BackgroundSelf-citationPre-Clinical Investigation of Keratose as an Excipient of Drug Coated Balloons
Goel, E., Erwin, M. M., Cawthon, C. V., Schaff, C., Fedor, N., Rayl, T., Wilson, O., Christians, U., Register, T. C., Geary, R. L., et al. (2020) · Molecules · doi:10.3390/molecules25071596 · Cited by 15 · see citing works
“with the degradation rate of the hydrogel material [30].”
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“After removal of low-molecular-weight contaminants, the keratin nanomaterial solution was concentrated against dilute buffer using the same 100 kDa membrane, frozen and lyophilized [19].”
InfluentialSelf-citationExtrusion 3D printing of keratin protein hydrogels free of exogenous chemical agents
Brodin, E., Boehmer, M., Prentice, A., Neff, E., McCoy, K., Mueller, J., Saul, J. M., & Sparks, J. L. (2022) · Biomedical Materials · doi:10.1088/1748-605x/ac7f15 · Cited by 14 · see citing works
“Nevertheless, keratin biomaterials have shown unique promise in controlled drug delivery [3, 4] and regenerative medicine [5–7] and possess interesting properties that motivate further investigation of their use in 3D printing applications.”
Self-citationHPLC–MS/MS method for quantification of paclitaxel from keratin containing samples
Turner, E. A., Stenson, A. C., & Yazdani, S. K. (2017) · Journal of Pharmaceutical and Biomedical Analysis · doi:10.1016/j.jpba.2017.03.011 · Cited by 14 · see citing works
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“Moreover, ciprofloxacin has shown the ability to inhibit the growth of both Pseudomonas aeruginosa and Staphylococcus aureus when loaded into keratose hydrogels [31].”
A keratin-based microparticle for cell delivery
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Self-citationKeratin Protein-Catalyzed Nitroaldol (Henry) Reaction and Comparison with Other Biopolymers
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“Recently, keratinous materials have attracted increasing attention as an important source of renewable biomaterials, especially since keratin wastes have been estimated to be more than 5 million tons per year [8], being used after degradation for different applications including scaffolds for tissue engineering [9,10]…”
BackgroundHuman Hair Keratin-Based Hydrogels in Regenerative Medicine: Current Status and Future Directions
Ashna, M., Senthilkumar, N., & Sanpui, P. (2023) · ACS Biomaterials Science & Engineering · doi:10.1021/acsbiomaterials.3c00883 · Cited by 13 · see citing works
Stimuli-responsive Hydrogels for Targeted Antibiotic Delivery in Bone Tissue Engineering
Kumar, J., Tolepbergenova, M., Musayev, A., Aizhan, D., Бегимбекова, Л. М., Kumar, H., Gulnar, T., Kumar, P., & Khan, S. (2025) · AAPS PharmSciTech · doi:10.1208/s12249-025-03218-0 · Cited by 12 · see citing works
“Similarly, Kera-tin-derived hydrogels released ciprofloxacin over 3 weeks in a sustained manner, remained bioactive against Staphylococcus aureus , and showed potential for use in tissue engineering settings requiring infection control [198].”
Fabrication and biological evaluation in vivo of an injectable keratin hydrogel as filler materials
Shao-bo, X., Zhang, C., Zhang, A., Wang, H., Rao, H., & Zhang, Z. (2015) · Journal of Bioactive and Compatible Polymers · doi:10.1177/0883911515609941 · Cited by 12 · see citing works
Preparation of Keratin-Metal Complexes Derived from Different Treatments of Chicken Feather Waste
Aldred, A. K., Klungsupya, P., Charerntantanakul, W., Weichold, O., & Sillapawattana, P. (2023) · Waste and Biomass Valorization · doi:10.1007/s12649-023-02154-z · Cited by 11 · see citing works
Development and characterization of a biomimetic coating for percutaneous devices
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Self-citationUntapped potentials of hazardous nanoarchitectural biopolymers
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Protein-based microneedles for biomedical applications: A systematic review
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Assessment of the Effects of Energy Density in Crosslinking of Keratin-Based Photo-Sensitive Resin
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Pharmaceutical & Cosmetical Application of Keratin Protein Obtaining from Biowaste- A Review
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“ Hydrogels are formed from keratins obtained by oxidative preparation are called as keratose.([64]) Keratin can be processed in various forms, some of which mentioned below.”
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Self-citationSynthesis of keratin-based hydrogels and cryogels destined for environmental applications
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Human Hair: Scaffold Materials for Regenerative Medicine
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The Use of Keratin as Potential Biomaterial for Bio-Dental Applications
Sharma, A. (2020) · Open Access Journal of Biomedical Science · doi:10.38125/oajbs.000204 · Cited by 4 · see citing works
“[51] Human hair *, ** Keratin hydrogels Sustained release of antibiotic (drug delivery)”
BackgroundLow Concentration and High Transparency Keratin Hydrogel Fabricated via Cryoablation
Wang, X., Shi, Z., Zhao, L., & Shen, X. (2021) · Frontiers in Materials · doi:10.3389/fmats.2021.710175 · Cited by 4 · see citing works
Saul, J. M., Bohnert, J. S., O’Brien, M., Alnuaimi, S., Carnwath, T. P., Dunivan, Q., Coffin, D. W., & Smith, T. L. (2025) · Tissue Engineering and Regenerative Medicine · doi:10.1007/s13770-025-00747-4 · Cited by 3 · see citing works
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“Finally, the solution was frozen and lyophilized to obtained as a solid product of KOS powder [16, 35].”
BackgroundMethodSelf-citationBioproteins: Fabrication and Application
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Carroll, E., Tarabokija, A., Chaudhry, H., Meer, A. S., & de Guzman, R. C. (2026) · Macromolecular Bioscience · doi:10.1002/mabi.202500541 · Cited by 2 · see citing works
Alanazi, Y. M., Ragib, A. A., Yin, C.-Y., Aboughaly, M., & El‐Harbawi, M. (2026) · Polymer Bulletin · doi:10.1007/s00289-026-06368-8 · Cited by 1 · see citing works
- Authors
- Saul, J. M., Ellenburg, M. D., de Guzman, R. C., & Dyke, M. V.
- Affiliations
- Virginia Tech - Wake Forest University School of Biomedical Engineering & Sciences (US)
- Wake Forest University Health Sciences (US)
- Corresponding author
- Saul, Justin M.
- ORCID
- Saul, Justin M.
- Venue
- Journal of Biomedical Materials Research Part A
- Publisher
- Wiley
- Published
- 2011-06-16
- Volume
- 98A
- Issue
- 4
- Pages
- 544-553
- ISSN
- 1549-3296 (ISSN-L)
- 1552-4965
- OpenAlex
- W2044217991
- Cited by
- 111
- References
- 45
- Citations by year
- 2026: 2 · 2025: 4 · 2024: 1 · 2023: 3 · 2022: 7 · 2021: 7 · 2020: 14 · 2019: 6 · 2018: 13 · 2017: 14 · 2016: 13 · 2015: 7 · 2014: 10 · 2013: 4 · 2012: 4
- FWCI
- 2.78
- Type
- journal article
- Language
- en
- Open access
- closed
- Locations
- Journal of Biomedical Materials Research Part A (publishedVersion)
- PubMed (publishedVersion)
- Topics
- Life Sciences › Biochemistry, Genetics and Molecular Biology › Molecular Medicine › Hydrogels: synthesis, properties, applications
- Physical Sciences › Materials Science › Biomaterials › Silk-based biomaterials and applications
- Physical Sciences › Materials Science › Biomaterials › Collagen: Extraction and Characterization
- Keywords
- keratin hydrogels, keratosis, ciprofloxacin, sustained drug release, antibiotic delivery, Staphylococcus aureus, antibacterial activity, hydrogel degradation, traumatic injury, infection control, tissue regeneration
- MeSH terms
- Animals, Anti-Infective Agents, Bacterial Infections, Biocompatible Materials, Ciprofloxacin, Delayed-Action Preparations, Drug Carriers, Humans, Keratins, Materials Testing, Mice, Inbred C57BL, Sheep, Hydrogels, Mice
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