Effects of Tunable Keratin Hydrogel Erosion on Recombinant Human Bone Morphogenetic Protein 2 Release, Bioactivity, and Bone Induction
Open accessAbstract
Keratin proteins derived from human hair are known to contain a large number of cysteine residues. In hydrogels composed of oxidatively extracted keratin (keratose, KOS), sulfonic acid on the cysteine residues prevents disulfide cross-linking. Reductively extracted keratin (kerateine, KTN) has thiol groups on cysteine residues that can form disulfide cross-links. The rates of keratin hydrogel erosion and, in some cases, drug release can be tuned by manipulating disulfide cross-linking levels via the KOS:KTN ratio. To investigate the use of these hydrogel mixtures as carriers for growth factors in tissue engineering applications, we fabricated 15% (w/v) hydrogels with KOS:KTN ratios of 100:0, 70:30, 50:50, 30:70, and 0:100 with and without recombinant human bone morphogenetic protein 2 (rhBMP-2). We compared the keratin rhBMP-2 carriers with the clinical system of resorbable collagen sponges, which are known to elicit problems such as edema, inflammation, and ectopic bone growth. In vitro , hydrogels with increasing levels of KOS eroded more rapidly. However, there was little difference among the various keratin formulations in amounts of rhBMP-2 released after 12 h. Collagen had similar total rhBMP-2 release, although with significantly greater release over the first 12 h compared with all keratin formulations, except for 0:100 KOS:KTN. However, increasing levels of KTN led to increasing release of bioactive rhBMP-2 based on the stimulation of alkaline phosphatase activity in MC3T3-E1 cells by the hydrogel releasate. Micro-CT analysis of heterotopic bone growth in a mouse model indicated that with rhBMP-2, the 30:70 formulation led to significant increases in bone volume compared with KOS and collagen, whereas the 50:50 formulation led to significant bone volume increases compared with all of the formulations except for 30:70 KOS:KTN. Histological analysis of images from the heterotopic mouse model indicated differences in the quality and type of bone among the various carriers of rhBMP-2. KOS:KTN in the ratio of 70:30 with rhBMP-2 elicited greater amounts of cortical bone, whereas the ratio 30:70 resulted in greater amounts of marrow, total bone, and residual material. The results indicate that in addition to the rate of rhBMP-2 release, the carrier itself can have important effects on bone volume, type, distribution, and quality. Impact Statement: Recombinant human bone morphogenetic protein 2 (rhBMP-2) delivery from collagen sponges for bone formation is an important clinical example of growth factors in tissue engineering. Side effects from rhBMP-2 burst release and rapid collagen resorption have led to investigation of alternative carriers. Here, keratin carriers with tunable erosion rates were formulated by varying disulfide crosslinking via ratios of oxidatively (keratose) to reductively (kerateine) extracted keratin. In vitro rhBMP-2 bioactivity increased with kerateine content, reaching levels greater than with collagen. Heterotopic bone formation in a mouse model depended on the keratin formulation, highlighting the importance of the growth factor carrier.
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The in vitro release profiles with AF488-rhBMP-2 followed a similar trend to those previously found using ELISA for rhBMP-2 detection.
“The in vitro release profiles with AF488 rhBMP-2 (Fig. 5A) followed a similar trend to those found previously when using ELISA for rhBMP-2 detection [15].”
From Keratin Scaffold Formulation Impacts rhBMP-2 Biodistribution and Bone Regeneration in a Rat Femur Defect Model (2025) · cites this paper as [15]
The Materials and Methods section states that the cited paper measured rhBMP-2 release by fluorometry of AF488-labeled rhBMP-2, not by ELISA. Its Discussion describes the release trend, but the claimed prior ELISA-based detection is contrary to the method reported in our copy; the citing paper's own profiles cannot be assessed from this source. (LLM, conf=0.89)
Checked by a reasoning model — may be wrong.
Experimental — accuracy not yet measuredThe rates of keratin degradation achieved by manipulation of the levels of disulfide crosslinking impact the amount and quality of bone in a heterotopic mouse model.
“It has also been shown that the rates of keratin degradation achieved by manipulation of the levels of disulfide crosslinking impact the amount and quality of bone in a heterotopic mouse model [15].”
From Keratin Scaffold Formulation Impacts rhBMP-2 Biodistribution and Bone Regeneration in a Rat Femur Defect Model (2025) · cites this paper as [15]
KTN has been shown to enhance the bioactivity of rhBMP-2 in vitro compared to collagen carriers.
“Because KTN has been shown to enhance the bioactivity of rhBMP-2 in vitro compared to collagen carriers [15]”
From Keratin Scaffold Formulation Impacts rhBMP-2 Biodistribution and Bone Regeneration in a Rat Femur Defect Model (2025) · cites this paper as [15]
Formulations with more KTN had higher levels of rhBMP-2 bioactivity than formulations with more KOS.
“This prior work showed that formulations with more KTN had higher levels of rhBMP-2 bioactivity than formulations with more KOS.”
From Keratin Scaffold Formulation Impacts rhBMP-2 Biodistribution and Bone Regeneration in a Rat Femur Defect Model (2025) · cites this paper as [15]
Modification of the number of cysteine residues available for disulfide crosslinking can be achieved by mixing the KOS and KTN forms of keratin in different ratios.
“It has previously been demonstrated that modification of the number of cysteine residues available for disulfide crosslinking can be achieved by simply mixing the KOS and KTN forms of keratin in different ratios [14, 15].”
From Keratin Scaffold Formulation Impacts rhBMP-2 Biodistribution and Bone Regeneration in a Rat Femur Defect Model (2025) · cites this paper as [15]
By varying the ratios of KOS and KTN in keratin materials, the rates of degradation of materials composed of keratin can be controlled.
“By varying the ratios of KOS and KTN in keratin materials, the rates of degradation of materials composed of keratin can be controlled in a manner reminiscent of synthetic polymers.”
From Keratin Scaffold Formulation Impacts rhBMP-2 Biodistribution and Bone Regeneration in a Rat Femur Defect Model (2025) · cites this paper as [15]
Prior work characterized how different keratin formulations impact rhBMP-2 bioactivity in vitro (alkaline phosphatase activity in MC3T3-E1 cells) and in vivo (mouse heterotopic bone model).
“We have also previously characterized how the different keratin formulations impact rhBMP-2 bioactivity with an in vitro alkaline phosphatase activity in MC3T3-E1 cells and an in vivo mouse heterotopic bone model [15].”
From Keratin Scaffold Formulation Impacts rhBMP-2 Biodistribution and Bone Regeneration in a Rat Femur Defect Model (2025) · cites this paper as [15]
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- Authors
- Cohen, D. J., Hyzy, S. L., Haque, S., Olson, L. C., Boyan, B. D., Saul, J. M., & Schwartz, Z.
- Affiliations
- Virginia Commonwealth University (US)
- Miami University (US)
- Georgia Institute of Technology (US)
- The University of Texas at San Antonio Health Science Center (US)
- Corresponding author
- Saul, Justin M.
- Venue
- Tissue Engineering Part A
- Publisher
- SAGE Publications
- Published
- 2018-09-06
- Volume
- 24
- Issue
- 21-22
- Pages
- 1616-1630
- ISSN
- 1937-3341 (ISSN-L)
- 1937-335X
- PMC
- PMC6238606
- OpenAlex
- W2889974115
- Cited by
- 15
- References
- 46
- Citations by year
- 2025: 3 · 2024: 1 · 2023: 2 · 2022: 5 · 2021: 1 · 2020: 3
- FWCI
- 0.38
- Type
- journal article
- Language
- en
- Open access
- green
- www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov
- Locations
- Tissue Engineering Part A (publishedVersion)
- PubMed Central (publishedVersion)
- PubMed (publishedVersion)
- Funders
- National Institutes of Health
- National Institute of Arthritis and Musculoskeletal and Skin Diseases (R01AR061391)
- Topics
- Life Sciences › Biochemistry, Genetics and Molecular Biology › Molecular Medicine › Hydrogels: synthesis, properties, applications
- Physical Sciences › Materials Science › Biomaterials › Collagen: Extraction and Characterization
- Physical Sciences › Materials Science › Biomaterials › Silk-based biomaterials and applications
- Keywords
- keratin hydrogels, rhBMP-2, disulfide cross-linking, keratosis, growth factor delivery, bone induction, ectopic bone formation, collagen sponge, alkaline phosphatase activity, MC3T3-E1 cells
- MeSH terms
- Animals, Cell Line, Delayed-Action Preparations, Humans, Keratins, Osteogenesis, Recombinant Proteins, Hydrogels, Mice, Bone Morphogenetic Protein 2
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