From child maltreatment to ICD‐11 complex post‐traumatic stress symptoms: The role of emotion regulation and re‐victimisation
Open accessAbstract
Objective: Complex post‐traumatic stress disorder (CPTSD) will be introduced in ICD‐11 and comprises symptoms of PTSD and disturbances in self‐organisation (DSO). The association of trauma with PTSD and DSO is not yet fully understood. We investigated the path from child maltreatment to PTSD and DSO and examined the mediating role of emotion regulation (ER) and adult interpersonal re‐victimisation. Method: Adult patients (N = 193) from a Scottish National Health Service clinic participated in the project. Participants completed measures of life events, ICD‐11 PTSD and CPTSD, and ER. Path analysis was used to assess possible direct and indirect effects from childhood trauma on current post‐traumatic psychopathology. Results: Overall results indicate that the path from child maltreatment to PTSD is a direct one, while the path to DSO is indirectly mediated by ER. Conclusions: Future research should address the potentially beneficial effect of treatment protocols for CPTSD explicitly aiming at reducing ER difficulties.
The claims and statistics of this paper haven’t been checked yet.
Run the check — free, no account needed. It reads the open-access text and checks the sources it cites.
Integrity signals
Registry
Cites
Statistics
Claims the paper makes
The claims and statistics of this paper haven’t been checked yet.
Run the check — free, no account needed. It reads the open-access text and checks the sources it cites.
Self-check
Percentages, sums and reported differences re-computed from the paper’s own numbers.
The self-check needs the paper’s full text.
Cites
Hu, L., & Bentler, P. M. (1999) · Structural Equation Modeling A Multidisciplinary Journal · doi:10.1080/10705519909540118 · Cited by 108,788 · see citing works
Principles and Practice of Structural Equation Modeling
Tabri, N., & Elliott, C. M. (2012) · Canadian Graduate Journal of Sociology and Criminology · doi:10.15353/cgjsc.v1i1.3787 · Cited by 39,065 · see citing works
<b>lavaan</b> : An <i>R</i> Package for Structural Equation Modeling
Rosseel, Y. (2012) · Journal of Statistical Software · doi:10.18637/jss.v048.i02 · Cited by 27,955 · see citing works
Diagnostic and Statistical Manual of Mental Disorders, Fourth Edition, Text Revision (DSM-IV-TR)
American Psychiatric Association (2000) · doi:10.1176/appi.books.9780890423349 · Cited by 11,069 · see citing works
Gratz, K. L., & Roemer, L. (2004) · Journal of Psychopathology and Behavioral Assessment · doi:10.1023/b:joba.0000007455.08539.94 · Cited by 8,942 · see citing works
Predictors of posttraumatic stress disorder and symptoms in adults: a meta-analysis
Ozer, E. J., Best, S. R., Lipsey, T. L., & Weiss, D. S. (2003) · Psychological Bulletin · doi:10.1037/0033-2909.129.1.52 · Cited by 3,322 · see citing works
Complex PTSD: A syndrome in survivors of prolonged and repeated trauma
Herman, J. L. (1992) · Journal of Traumatic Stress · doi:10.1002/jts.2490050305 · Cited by 2,609 · see citing works
Cloitre, M., Stolbach, B. C., Herman, J. L., Kolk, B. V. D., Pynoos, R., Wang, J., & Petkova, E. (2009) · Journal of Traumatic Stress · doi:10.1002/jts.20444 · Cited by 1,473 · see citing works
Annual research review: enduring neurobiological effects of childhood abuse and neglect
Teicher, M. H., & Samson, J. A. (2016) · Journal of Child Psychology and Psychiatry · doi:10.1111/jcpp.12507 · Cited by 1,473 · see citing works
Predictors of posttraumatic stress disorder and symptoms in adults: A meta-analysis.
Ozer, E. J., Best, S. R., Lipsey, T. L., & Weiss, D. S. (2008) · Psychological Trauma Theory Research Practice and Policy · doi:10.1037/1942-9681.s.1.3 · Cited by 1,252 · see citing works
The APSAC Handbook on Child Maltreatment
Myers, J. E. B. (2001) · Medical Entomology and Zoology · Cited by 1,219 · see citing works
Cloître, M., Koenen, K. C., Cohen, L. R., & Han, H. (2002) · Journal of Consulting and Clinical Psychology · doi:10.1037//0022-006x.70.5.1067 · Cited by 1,099 · see citing works
Cloitre, M., Koenen, K. C., Cohen, L. R., & Han, H. (2002) · Journal of Consulting and Clinical Psychology · doi:10.1037/0022-006x.70.5.1067 · Cited by 1,097 · see citing works
Child neglect: developmental issues and outcomes☆
Hildyard, K. L., & Wolfe, D. A. (2002) · Child Abuse & Neglect · doi:10.1016/s0145-2134(02)00341-1 · Cited by 994 · see citing works
Emotion regulation and mental health: recent findings, current challenges, and future directions
Berking, M., & Wupperman, P. (2012) · Current Opinion in Psychiatry · doi:10.1097/yco.0b013e3283503669 · Cited by 836 · see citing works
Diagnosis and classification of disorders specifically associated with stress: proposals for ICD-11
Maercker, A., Brewin, C. R., Bryant, R. A., Cloitre, M., van Ommeren, M., Jones, L. M., Humayan, A., Kagee, A., Llosa, A. E., Rousseau, C., et al. (2013) · World Psychiatry · doi:10.1002/wps.20057 · Cited by 762 · see citing works
Evidence for proposed ICD-11 PTSD and complex PTSD: a latent profile analysis
Cloitre, M., Garvert, D. W., Brewin, C. R., Bryant, R. A., & Maercker, A. (2013) · European Journal of Psychotraumatology · doi:10.3402/ejpt.v4i0.20706 · Cited by 751 · see citing works
D'Andrea, W., Ford, J., Stolbach, B., Spinazzola, J., & van der Kolk, B. A. (2012) · American Journal of Orthopsychiatry · doi:10.1111/j.1939-0025.2012.01154.x · Cited by 703 · see citing works
Childhood maltreatment, emotional dysregulation, and psychiatric comorbidities
Dvir, Y., Ford, J. D., Hill, M., & Frazier, J. A. (2014) · Harvard Review of Psychiatry · doi:10.1097/hrp.0000000000000014 · Cited by 698 · see citing works
Childhood victimization and lifetime revictimization
Widom, C. S., Czaja, S. J., & Dutton, M. A. (2008) · Child Abuse & Neglect · doi:10.1016/j.chiabu.2007.12.006 · Cited by 685 · see citing works
A review of current evidence regarding the ICD-11 proposals for diagnosing PTSD and complex PTSD
Brewin, C. R., Cloitre, M., Hyland, P., Shevlin, M., Maercker, A., Bryant, R. A., Humayun, A., Jones, L. M., Kagee, A., Rousseau, C., et al. (2017) · Clinical Psychology Review · doi:10.1016/j.cpr.2017.09.001 · Cited by 678 · cited 5× · see citing works
“So far, research found some support for the distinction between PTSD and CPTSD (Brewin et al., 2017).”
BackgroundResultInfluentialSelf-citationEhring, T., & Quack, D. (2010) · Behavior Therapy · doi:10.1016/j.beth.2010.04.004 · Cited by 668 · see citing works
Treatment for PTSD Related to Childhood Abuse: a Randomized Controlled Trial
Cloitre, M., Stovall-McClough, K. C., Nooner, K., Zorbas, P., Cherry, S., Jackson, C. L., Gan, W., & Petkova, E. (2010) · American Journal of Psychiatry · doi:10.1176/appi.ajp.2010.09081247 · Cited by 642 · cited 1× · see citing works
“Even though established treatment protocols for PTSD seem to work for CPTSD as well (Jongh et al., 2016), strengthening adaptive ER strategies might further facilitate recovery from child maltreatment related psychopathology (Cloitre et al., 2010).”
BackgroundTull, M. T., Barrett, H. M., McMillan, E. S., & Roemer, L. (2007) · Behavior Therapy · doi:10.1016/j.beth.2006.10.001 · Cited by 636 · see citing works
Roth, S., Newman, E., Pelcovitz, D., van der Kolk, B., & Mandel, F. S. (1997) · Journal of Traumatic Stress · doi:10.1002/jts.2490100403 · Cited by 581 · see citing works
Emotion Regulation and Psychopathology: A Transdiagnostic Approach to Etiology and Treatment
Choate-Summers, M. L. (2011) · Cognitive Behaviour Therapy · doi:10.1080/16506073.2010.524747 · Cited by 501 · see citing works
The Development of Self-Control of Emotion: Intrinsic and Extrinsic Influences
Fox, N. A., & Calkins, S. D. (2003) · Motivation and Emotion · doi:10.1023/a:1023622324898 · Cited by 488 · see citing works
Cloitre, M., Miranda, R., Stovall-McClough, K. C., & Han, H. (2005) · Behavior Therapy · doi:10.1016/s0005-7894(05)80060-7 · Cited by 440 · see citing works
Child Maltreatment and Neural Systems Underlying Emotion Regulation
McLaughlin, K. A., Peverill, M., Gold, A. L., Alves, S., & Sheridan, M. A. (2015) · Journal of the American Academy of Child & Adolescent Psychiatry · doi:10.1016/j.jaac.2015.06.010 · Cited by 409 · see citing works
A critical evaluation of the complex PTSD literature: Implications for <i>DSM‐5</i>
Resick, P. A., Bovin, M. J., Calloway, A. L., Dick, A. M., King, M. W., Mitchell, K. S., Suvak, M. K., Wells, S. Y., Stirman, S. W., & Wolf, E. J. (2012) · Journal of Traumatic Stress · doi:10.1002/jts.21699 · Cited by 365 · see citing works
Karatzias, T., Shevlin, M. E., Fyvie, C., Hyland, P., Efthymiadou, E., Wilson, D., Roberts, N. P., Bisson, J. I., Brewin, C. R., & Cloître, M. (2016) · Journal of Affective Disorders · doi:10.1016/j.jad.2016.09.032 · Cited by 365 · see citing works
Self-citationEmotion and Emotion Regulation: Two Sides of the Developing Coin
Thompson, R. A. (2011) · Emotion Review · doi:10.1177/1754073910380969 · Cited by 347 · see citing works
CRITICAL ANALYSIS OF THE CURRENT TREATMENT GUIDELINES FOR COMPLEX PTSD IN ADULTS
de Jongh, A., Resick, P. A., Zoellner, L. A., van Minnen, A., Lee, C., Monson, C., Foa, E. B., Wheeler, K., ten Broeke, E. T., Feeny, N., et al. (2016) · Depression and Anxiety · doi:10.1002/da.22469 · Cited by 298 · see citing works
Disentangling the mental health impact of childhood abuse and neglect
Cecil, C. A. M., Viding, E., Fearon, P., Glaser, D., & McCrory, E. J. (2017) · Child Abuse & Neglect · doi:10.1016/j.chiabu.2016.11.024 · Cited by 284 · see citing works
Classification of trauma and stressor-related disorders in DSM-5
Friedman, M. J., Resick, P. A., Bryant, R. A., Strain, J. J., Horowitz, M. J., & Spiegel, D. (2011) · Depression and Anxiety · doi:10.1002/da.20845 · Cited by 254 · see citing works
Karatzias, T., Shevlin, M., Fyvie, C., Hyland, P., Efthymiadou, E., Wilson, D., Roberts, N., Bisson, J., Brewin, C., & Cloitre, M. (2016) · Journal of Anxiety Disorders · doi:10.1016/j.janxdis.2016.10.009 · Cited by 169 · see citing works
Self-citationStevens, N. R., Gerhart, J., Goldsmith, R. E., Heath, N. M., Chesney, S. A., & Hobfoll, S. E. (2013) · Behavior Therapy · doi:10.1016/j.beth.2012.09.003 · Cited by 156 · see citing works
Petrenko, C. L. M., Friend, A., Garrido, E. F., Taussig, H. N., & Culhane, S. E. (2012) · Child Abuse & Neglect · doi:10.1016/j.chiabu.2012.07.001 · Cited by 134 · see citing works
Berzenski, S. R. (2018) · Development and Psychopathology · doi:10.1017/s0954579418000020 · Cited by 119 · see citing works
Bouncing forward of young refugees: a perspective on resilience research directions
Sleijpen, M., ter Heide, F. J. J., Mooren, T. T. M., Boeije, H., & Kleber, R. J. (2013) · European Journal of Psychotraumatology · doi:10.3402/ejpt.v4i0.20124 · Cited by 113 · see citing works
Miron, L. R., & Orcutt, H. K. (2014) · Child Abuse & Neglect · doi:10.1016/j.chiabu.2014.10.004 · Cited by 85 · see citing works
Lueger‐Schuster, B., Knefel, M., Glück, T. M., Jagsch, R., Kantor, V., & Weindl, D. (2017) · Child Abuse & Neglect · doi:10.1016/j.chiabu.2017.12.009 · Cited by 78 · see citing works
Self-citationRevictimization and interpersonal resource loss predicts PTSD among women in substance‐use treatment
Schumm, J. A., Hobfoll, S. E., & Keogh, N. J. (2004) · Journal of Traumatic Stress · doi:10.1023/b:jots.0000022624.53181.21 · Cited by 66 · see citing works
Choi, J. Y., Choi, Y. M., Gim, M. S., Park, J. H., & Park, S. H. (2014) · Child Abuse & Neglect · doi:10.1016/j.chiabu.2014.04.016 · Cited by 37 · see citing works
Jerud, A. B., Zoellner, L. A., Pruitt, L. D., & Feeny, N. C. (2014) · Journal of Consulting and Clinical Psychology · doi:10.1037/a0036520 · Cited by 31 · see citing works
Kaczkurkin, A. N., Zang, Y., Gay, N. G., Peterson, A. L., Yarvis, J. S., Borah, E. V., Dondanville, K. A., Hembree, E. A., Litz, B. T., Mintz, J., et al. (2017) · Journal of Traumatic Stress · doi:10.1002/jts.22202 · Cited by 24 · see citing works
Flagged first, then by citations
1 of the 47 references couldn’t be matched to a known paper.
Cited by
Sorted by citations
Complex PTSD and borderline personality disorder
Ford, J. D., & Courtois, C. A. (2021) · Borderline Personality Disorder and Emotion Dysregulation · doi:10.1186/s40479-021-00155-9 · Cited by 209 · see citing works
“Emotion dysregulation also has been found to mediate the relationship between a history of childhood maltreatment and other cPTSD/DSO symptoms in adults in mental health treatment [94].”
BackgroundThe neurobiological effects of childhood maltreatment on brain structure, function, and attachment
Tomoda, A., Nishitani, S., Takiguchi, S., Fujisawa, T. X., Sugiyama, T., & Teicher, M. H. (2024) · European Archives of Psychiatry and Clinical Neuroscience · doi:10.1007/s00406-024-01779-y · Cited by 96 · see citing works
Lehmann, S., Breivik, K., Monette, S., & Minnis, H. (2020) · Child Abuse & Neglect · doi:10.1016/j.chiabu.2020.104374 · Cited by 46 · see citing works
Haselgruber, A., Knefel, M., Sölva, K., & Lueger‐Schuster, B. (2020) · Journal of Affective Disorders · doi:10.1016/j.jad.2020.12.116 · Cited by 47 · see citing works
Self-citationVeronese, G., Pepe, A., Cavazzoni, F., Obaid, H., & Viejo, J. M. P. (2019) · Frontiers in Psychology · doi:10.3389/fpsyg.2019.01674 · Cited by 37 · see citing works
Simon, E., Raats, M., & Erens, B. (2024) · Child Abuse & Neglect · doi:10.1016/j.chiabu.2024.106802 · Cited by 34 · see citing works
Tsur, N. (2020) · Journal of Interpersonal Violence · doi:10.1177/0886260520944529 · Cited by 26 · see citing works
Progress and Limitations in the Treatment of Complex PTSD and Developmental Trauma Disorder
Ford, J. D. (2021) · Current Treatment Options in Psychiatry · doi:10.1007/s40501-020-00236-6 · Cited by 26 · see citing works
Redican, E., Cloître, M., Hyland, P., McBride, O., Karatzias, T., Murphy, J., & Shevlin, M. E. (2021) · Journal of Anxiety Disorders · doi:10.1016/j.janxdis.2021.102497 · Cited by 27 · see citing works
Self-citationZagefka, H. (2022) · European Journal of Social Psychology · doi:10.1002/ejsp.2843 · Cited by 24 · see citing works
Kvedaraitė, M., Geležėlytė, O., Kairytė, A., Roberts, N. P., & Kazlauskas, E. (2021) · International Journal of Social Psychiatry · doi:10.1177/00207640211057720 · Cited by 21 · see citing works
Haselgruber, A., Sölva, K., & Lueger‐Schuster, B. (2020) · Child Abuse & Neglect · doi:10.1016/j.chiabu.2020.104558 · Cited by 23 · see citing works
Self-citationHarris, J., Loth, E., & Sethna, V. (2024) · Frontiers in Psychiatry · doi:10.3389/fpsyt.2024.1331256 · Cited by 18 · see citing works
Kvedaraitė, M., Geležėlytė, O., Karatzias, T., Roberts, N. P., & Kazlauskas, E. (2021) · BJPsych Open · doi:10.1192/bjo.2021.1055 · Cited by 13 · see citing works
Self-citationBaek, J., Kim, K.-A., Kim, H., Kim, O., Ko, M., Kim, S. H., Sohn, I. B., Shin, B. K., Jeon, W. T., & Chu, S. H. (2022) · European Journal of Psychotraumatology · doi:10.1080/20008066.2022.2119012 · Cited by 14 · see citing works
Pfluger, V., Rohner, S. L., Eising, C. M., Maercker, A. R. A., & Thoma, M. V. (2022) · Frontiers in Psychology · doi:10.3389/fpsyg.2022.820345 · Cited by 13 · see citing works
Jin, X., Wang, Y., Huang, C., Luo, X., Gao, X., & Shen, Y. (2023) · BJPsych Open · doi:10.1192/bjo.2023.606 · Cited by 12 · see citing works
Domestic Violence Against Men and Boys
Bates, E. A., & Taylor, J. C. (2022) · Routledge eBooks · doi:10.4324/9781003089612 · Cited by 11 · see citing works
Validation of the Childhood Trauma Questionnaire – Short Form (CTQ-SF) for a French-Speaking Sample
Delhalle, M., Monseur, C., Knüppel, I., & Blavier, A. (2024) · Journal of Child & Adolescent Trauma · doi:10.1007/s40653-024-00612-x · Cited by 7 · see citing works
The role of hope in psychodynamic therapy (PDT) for complex PTSD (C-PTSD)
Levi, O. (2019) · Journal of Social Work Practice · doi:10.1080/02650533.2019.1648246 · Cited by 7 · see citing works
Childhood Maltreatment and Complex PTSD: A Systematic Literature Review
Omidbakhsh, Z., Mohammadi, Z., & Soltanabadi, S. (2025) · Trauma Violence & Abuse · doi:10.1177/15248380251320985 · Cited by 6 · see citing works
Watts, J. R., Kim, J., & Warwick, L. (2025) · Journal of Counseling & Development · doi:10.1002/jcad.12561 · Cited by 5 · see citing works
Ho, Y.-S., & Su, Y.-J. (2026) · Journal of Affective Disorders · doi:10.1016/j.jad.2026.121223 · Cited by 4 · see citing works
Ferrajão, P. C., Batista, C. I., Rocha, R., & Elklit, A. (2024) · Scandinavian Journal of Child and Adolescent Psychiatry and Psychology · doi:10.2478/sjcapp-2024-0004 · Cited by 3 · see citing works
Peck, A., Hutchinson, M., & Provost, S. (2023) · Frontiers in Child and Adolescent Psychiatry · doi:10.3389/frcha.2023.1074861 · Cited by 2 · see citing works
Trauma and identity predictors of ICD-11 PTSD and complex PTSD in a trauma-exposed Colombian sample
Robinson, M., Fino, E., Baysu, G., Turner, R. N., Bloch, N. I., Hanna, D., & Armour, C. (2025) · International Journal of Social Psychiatry · doi:10.1177/00207640251318074 · Cited by 2 · see citing works
Pharmako- und/oder Psychotherapie bei posttraumatischer Belastungsstörung
Kunzke, D., Thoma, M. V., & Joksimović, L. (2019) · Psychotherapeut · doi:10.1007/s00278-019-0339-z · Cited by 1 · see citing works
Koch-Scharwatt, A., & Wesemann, U. (2026) · Healthcare · doi:10.3390/healthcare14030295 · Cited by 1 · see citing works
Taylor, J. C., Bates, E. A., & Wright, D. M. (2022) · Routledge eBooks · doi:10.4324/9781003089612-10 · Cited by 1 · see citing works
Kim, J.-W., Nam, C. S., & Choi, H. (2024) · European Journal of Psychotraumatology · doi:10.1080/20008066.2024.2328505 · Cited by 1 · see citing works
Mirbagheri, A. M., Zanjani, Z., Omidi, A., & Azadchehreh, M. J. (2024) · Iranian Journal of Psychiatry and Clinical Psychology · doi:10.32598/ijpcp.29.4.4660.1 · Cited by 1 · see citing works
Alvarez‐Segura, M., Butjosa, A., Navarro, M. A., Jiménez, E. M. O., Richart, T., Rose, P. D., Sperandini, V., & Lacasa, F. (2025) · Academia Mental Health and Well-Being · doi:10.20935/mhealthwellb7698
Siebert, M., Marin, N., Hitzler, M., Hoyer, J., Kabbathas, E., Knaevelsrud, C., Kolassa, I., Krakau, L., Kruse, J., Leichsenring, F., et al. (2026) · Child Abuse & Neglect · doi:10.1016/j.chiabu.2026.108028
Çi̇men, F., & Seçer, İ. (2026) · Clinical Child Psychology and Psychiatry · doi:10.1177/13591045261453460
Mobli, M., Borjali, A., Sohrābi, F., Isamorad, A., & Yonesi, J. (2025) · مجله علمی دانشگاه علوم پزشکی رفسنجان · doi:10.66224/jrums.24.9.789
Moshe, S., & Hamama‐Raz, Y. (2026) · Current Psychology · doi:10.1007/s12144-026-10136-2
- Authors
- Knefel, M., Lueger‐Schuster, B., Karatzias, T., Shevlin, M., & Hyland, P.
- Affiliations
- University of Vienna (AT)
- NHS Lothian (GB)
- University of Ulster (GB)
- National College of Ireland (IE)
- Corresponding author
- Knefel, Matthias
- Venue
- Journal of Clinical Psychology
- Publisher
- Wiley
- Published
- 2018-06-22
- Volume
- 75
- Issue
- 3
- Pages
- 392-403
- ISSN
- 0021-9762 (ISSN-L)
- 1097-4679
- PMC
- PMC6686279
- OpenAlex
- W2809487273
- Cited by
- 37
- References
- 47
- Citations by year
- 2026: 5 · 2025: 5 · 2024: 7 · 2023: 3 · 2022: 5 · 2021: 5 · 2020: 4 · 2019: 3
- FWCI
- 3.52
- Type
- journal article
- Language
- en
- Open access
- hybrid
- doi.org
- Licence
- Locations
- Journal of Clinical Psychology (publishedVersion, cc-by)
- Europe PMC (PubMed Central) (publishedVersion, cc-by)
- PubMed Central (publishedVersion, cc-by)
- PubMed (publishedVersion)
- Maynooth University ePrints and eTheses Archive (Maynooth University) (acceptedVersion)
- NORMA (acceptedVersion)
- Edinburgh Napier Research Repository (Edinburgh Napier University) (submittedVersion, cc-by)
- TRAP@NCI (National College of Ireland) (submittedVersion)
- Topics
- Social Sciences › Psychology › Clinical Psychology › Posttraumatic Stress Disorder Research
- Social Sciences › Psychology › Clinical Psychology › Child Abuse and Trauma
- Social Sciences › Psychology › Clinical Psychology › Psychoanalysis and Psychopathology Research
- Keywords
- complex PTSD, child abuse, emotion regulation, revictimization, ICD-11, post-traumatic stress disorder, childhood trauma, mediation
- MeSH terms
- Adverse Childhood Experiences, Emotional Regulation, Adult, Female, Humans, Male, Middle Aged, Stress Disorders, Post-Traumatic, Crime Victims, International Classification of Diseases, Adult Survivors of Child Abuse
About these checks
Registry, retraction, Cites and statistics results are computed, not judged, with one exception: a printed reference that no index lists is read once by a model before it counts as a citation error. Claims are extracted by a model and kept only when their quote appears verbatim in the text; each cited source is then checked, with a model’s help, for whether it says what the claim relies on. Those verdicts can be wrong — read the claim’s quote and the cited source before relying on one.
Statistics and arithmetic are recomputed, not judged.
Confidence bands are shown only for fields calibrated on our annotated test set. None is calibrated yet, so no band is shown.
What counts as a claim ›How we measure confidence ›How we check this ›
Are you an author, or do you see a problem with this page? Request a review
