CoChat
Sign Up
Cited by 4Language Development and DisordersMultilingual Education and PolicyHearing Impairment and Communication

The DOI matches its Crossref record; 2 of the 2 references it cites were found in a registry or an index.

Language Development in Bilingual Children: Fact, Factoid and Fiction

Gathercole, Virginia Mueller·2018·Language Policy
DOI 10.1007/978-3-319-75963-0_14
Open this paper in CoChat — free account

Overview

Integrity signals

Registry

Crossref · 10.1007/978-3-319-75963-0_14

Cites

2 of 2 references verified0 citation errors · 0 not checkable

Statistics

Recomputing p-values needs the paper’s full text.

Verification

Claims the paper makes

We couldn’t retrieve this paper’s full text, so its claims and self-check weren’t run. The registry and citation checks still apply.

Claims other papers make about this one

Each is checked against this paper’s own text: does it say what the citing paper says it does?

Citations

Cites

Show all 2 references

Research works printed but not linked: 96

  1. Ameel, E., Storms, G., Malt, B., & Sloman, S. (2005). How bilinguals solve the naming problem. Journal of Memory and Language, 53, 60–80. · DOI
  2. Ameel, E., Malt, B. C., Storms, G., & van Assche, F. (2009). Semantic convergence in the bilingual lexicon. Journal of Memory and Language, 60, 270–290. · DOI
  3. Armon-Lotem, S., de Jong, J., & Meir, N. (Eds.). (2015). Assessing multilingual children: Disentangling bilingualism from language impairment. Bristol, UK: Multilingual Matters.
  4. Bialystok, E. (2011). Reshaping the mind: The benefits of bilingualism. Canadian Journal of Experimental Psychology, 65, 229–235. · DOI
  5. Bosch, L., & Ramon-Casas, M. (2014). First translation equivalents in bilingual toddlers’ expressive vocabulary: Does form similarity matter? International Journal of Behavioral Development, 38, 317–322. · DOI
  6. Bridges, K., & Hoff, E. (2014). Older sibling influences on the language environment and language development of toddlers in bilingual homes. Applied PsychoLinguistics, 35, 225–241. · DOI
  7. Brown, A., & Gullberg, M. (2008). Bidirectional crosslinguistic influence in L1-L2 encoding of manner in speech and gesture. Studies in Second Language Acquisition, 30, 225–251. · DOI
  8. Caldas, S. J. (2013). Assessment of academic performance: The impact of no child left behind policies in bilingual education: A ten year retrospective. In V. C. M. Gathercole (Ed.), Issues in the assessment of bilinguals (pp. 205–231). Bristol, UK: Multilingual Matters. · DOI
  9. Calvo, A., & Bialystok, E. (2014). Independent effects of bilingualism and socioeconomic status on language ability and executive functioning. Cognition, 130, 278–288. · DOI
  10. Cenoz, J., Arozena, E., & Gorter, D. (2013). Assessing multilingual students’ writing skills in Basque, Spanish and English. In V. C. M. Gathercole (Ed.), Issues in the assessment of bilinguals (pp. 185–204). Bristol, UK: Multilingual Matters. · DOI
  11. Chiat, S., Armon-Lotem, S., Marinis, T., Polišenská, K., Roy, P., & Seeff-Gabriel, B. (2013). Assessment of language abilities in sequential bilingual children: The potential of sentence imitation tasks. In V. C. M. Gathercole (Ed.), Issues in the assessment of bilinguals (pp. 56–89). Bristol, UK: Multilingual Matters. · DOI
  12. Cobo-Lewis, A. B., Pearson, B. Z., Eilers, R. E., & Umbel, V. C. (2002a). Effects of bilingualism and bilingual education on oral and written English skills: A multifactor study of standardized test outcomes. In D. K. Oller & R. E. Eilers (Eds.), Language and literacy in bilingual children (pp. 64–97). Clevedon, UK: Multilingual Matters. · DOI
  13. Cobo-Lewis, A. B., Pearson, B. Z., Eilers, R. E., & Umbel, V. C. (2002b). Effects of bilingualism and bilingual education on oral and written Spanish skills: A multifactor study of standardized test outcomes. In D. K. Oller & R. E. Eilers (Eds.), Language and literacy in bilingual children (pp. 98–117). Clevedon, UK: Multilingual Matters. · DOI
  14. Dijkstra, T., & van Hell, J. G. (2003). Testing the language mode hypothesis using trillinguals. International Journal of Bilingual Education and Bilingualism, 6, 2–16. · DOI
  15. Dijkstra, T., & Van Heuven, W. J. B. (1998). The BIA-model and bilingual word recognition. In J. Grainger & A. Jacobs (Eds.), Localist connectionist approaches to human cognition (pp. 189–225). Hillsdale, MI: Erlbaum.
  16. Elston-Güttler, K., & Williams, J. N. (2008). L1 polysemy affects L2 meaning interpretation: Evidence for L1 concepts active during L2 reading. Second Language Research, 24, 167–187. · DOI
  17. Fennell, C., & Byers-Heinlein, K. (2014). You sound like Mommy: Bilingual and monolingual infants learn words best from speakers typical of their language environments. International Journal of Behavioral Development, 38, 309–316. · DOI
  18. Fuller, B., Bein, E., Kim, Y., & Rabe-Hesketh, S. (2015). Differing cognitive trajectories of Mexican American toddlers: The role of class, nativity, and maternal practices. Hispanic Journal of Behavioral Sciences, 37, 139–169. · DOI
  19. García, G. E. (1991). Factors influencing the reading test performance of Spanish-speaking Hispanic students. Reading Research Quarterly, 26, 371–392. · DOI
  20. García, O. (2009). Education, multilingualism and translanguaging in the 21st century. In A. K. Mohanty, M. Panda, R. Phillipson, & T. Skutnabb-Kangas (Eds.), Multilingual education for social justice: Globalising the local (pp. 140–158). New Delhi, India: Orient Blackswan.
  21. Gathercole, V. C. M. (2002). Monolingual and bilingual acquisition: Learning different treatments of that-trace phenomena in English and Spanish. In D. K. Oller & R. E. Eilers (Eds.), Language and literacy in bilingual children (pp. 220–254). Clevedon, UK: Multilingual Matters.
  22. Gathercole, V. C. M. (Ed.). (2007a). Language transmission in bilingual families in Wales. Cardiff, UK: Welsh Language Board.
  23. Gathercole, V. C. M. (2007b). Miami and North Wales, so far and yet so near: Constructivist account of morpho-syntactic development in bilingual children. International Journal of Bilingual Education and Bilingualism, 10, 224–247. · DOI
  24. Gathercole, V. C. M. (Ed.). (2013a). Issues in the assessment of bilinguals. Bristol, UK: Multilingual Matters. · DOI
  25. Gathercole, V. C. M. (Ed.). (2013b). Solutions for the assessment of bilinguals. Bristol, UK: Multilingual Matters.
  26. Gathercole, V. C. M. (2016). Factors moderating proficiency in bilinguals. In E. Nicoladis & S. Montanari (Eds.), Bilingualism across the lifespan: Factors moderating language proficiency (pp. 123–140). Washington, DC: Mouton de Gruyter, American Psychological Association. · DOI
  27. Gathercole, V. C. M., & Hoff, E. (2007). Input and the acquisition of language: Three questions. In E. Hoff & M. Shatz (Eds.), The Handbook of Language Development (pp. 107–127). Blackwell Publishers. · DOI
  28. Gathercole, V. C. M., Kennedy, I., & Thomas, E. M. (2016). Socioeconomic levels and bilinguals’ performance on language and cognitive measures. Bilingualism: Language and Cognition./FirstView Article/January, 2016, 1–22.
  29. Gathercole, V. C. M., & Moawad, R. (2010). Semantic interaction in early and late bilinguals: All words are not created equally. Bilingualism: Language and Cognition, 13, 1–22. · DOI
  30. Gathercole, V. C. M., Pérez-Tattam, R., Stadthagen-González, H., & Thomas, E. M. (2014). Bilingual construction of two systems: To interact or not to interact? In E. M. Thomas & I. Mennen (Eds.), Advances in the study of bilingualism (pp. 63–89). Bristol, UK: Multilingual Matters.
  31. Gathercole, V. C. M., Stadthagen-González, H., Pérez-Tattam, R., & Yavaș, F. (2016). Semantic and conceptual factors in Spanish-English bilinguals’ processing of lexical categories in their two languages. Second Language Research, 32, 537–562. · DOI
  32. Gathercole, V. C. M., & Thomas, E. M. (2005). Minority language survival: Input factors influencing the acquisition of Welsh. In J. Cohen, K. McAlister, K. Rolstad & J. MacSwan (Eds.), ISB4: Proceedings of the 4th International Symposium on Bilingualism (pp. 852–874). Somerville, MA: Cascadilla Press.
  33. Gathercole, V. C. M., & Thomas, E. M. (2007). Factors contributing to language transmission in bilingual families: The core study–adult interviews. In V. C. Gathercole (Ed.), Language transmission in bilingual families in Wales (pp. 59–181). Cardiff, UK: Welsh Language Board.
  34. Gathercole, V. C. M., & Thomas, E. M. (2009). Bilingual first-language development: Dominant language takeover, threatened minority language take-up. Bilingualism: Language and Cognition, 12, 213–237. · DOI
  35. Gathercole, V. C. M., Thomas, E. M., & Hughes, E. (2008). Designing a normed receptive vocabulary test for bilingual populations: A model from Welsh. International Journal of Bilingual Education and Bilingualism, 11, 678–720. · DOI
  36. Gathercole, V. C. M., Thomas, E. M., & Laporte, N. (2001). The acquisition of grammatical gender in Welsh. Journal of Celtic Language Learning, 6, 53–87.
  37. Gathercole, V. C. M., Thomas, E. M., Roberts, E., Hughes, C., & Hughes, E. K. (2013). Why assessment needs to take exposure into account: Vocabulary and grammatical abilities in bilingual children. In V. C. M. Gathercole (Ed.), Issues in the assessment of bilinguals (pp. 20–55). Bristol, UK: Multilingual Matters. · DOI
  38. Gatt, D., O’Toole, C., & Haman, E. (2015). Using parental report to assess early lexical production in children exposed to more than one language. In S. Armon-Lotem, J. de Jong & N. Meir (Eds.), Assessing multilingual children: Disentangling bilingualism from language impairment. Bristol, UK: Multilingual Matters. · DOI
  39. Grosjean, F. (1998). Studying bilinguals: Methodological and conceptual issues. Bilingualism: Language and Cognition, 1, 131–149. · DOI
  40. Grosjean, F. (2001). The bilingual's language modes. In J. L. Nicol (Ed.), One mind, two languages: Bilingual language processing (pp. 1–22). Oxford, UK: Blackwell.
  41. Håkansson, G., Salameh, E.-K., & Nettelbladt, U. (2003). Measuring language development in bilingual children: Swedish-Arabic children with and without language impairment. Linguistics, 41(2), 255–288. · DOI
  42. Hoff, E. (2003). The specificity of environmental influence: Socioeconomic status affects early vocabulary development via maternal speech. Child Development, 74, 1368–1378. · DOI · Paper page
  43. Hoff, E., Core, C., Place, S., Rumiche, R., Señor, M., & Parra, M. (2012). Dual language exposure and early bilingual development. Journal of Child Language, 39, 1–27. · DOI · Paper page
  44. Hulk, A., & Müller, N. (2000). Bilingual first language acquisition at the interface between syntax and pragmatics. Bilingualism: Language and Cognition, 3, 227–244. · DOI
  45. Jean, M., & Geva, E. (2012). Through the eyes and from the mouths of young heritage-language learners: How children feel and think about their two languages. TESL Canada Journal/Revue TESL Du Canada, 29, 49–80. · DOI
  46. Jia, G., Chen, J., Kim, H. Y., Chan, P.-S., & Jeung, C. (2014). Bilingual lexical skills of school-age children with Chinese and Korean heritage languages in the United States. International Journal of Behavioral Development, 38, 350–358. · DOI · Paper page
  47. Jiang, N. (2002). Form-meaning mapping in vocabulary acquisition in a second language. Studies in Second Language Acquisition, 24, 617–638. · DOI
  48. Jiang, N. (2004). Semantic transfer and its implications for vocabulary teaching in a second language. Modern Language Journal, 88, 416–432. · DOI
  49. Jones, B., & Lewis, W. G. (2014). Language arrangements within bilingual education. In E. M. Thomas & I. Mennen (Eds.), Advances in the study of bilingualism (pp. 141–170). Bristol, UK: Multilingual Matters.
  50. Jusczyk, P. W. (1999). How infants begin to extract words from fluent speech. Trends in Cognitive Science, 3, 323–328. · DOI
  51. Kelley, A., & Kohnert, K. (2012). Is there a cognate advantage for typically developing Spanish-speaking English-language learners? Language, Speech, and Hearing Services in Schools, 43, 191–204. · DOI
  52. Kroll, J. F., & Bialystok, E. (2013). Understanding the consequences of bilingualism for language processing and cognition. Journal of Cognitive Psychology, 25, 497–514. · DOI
  53. Kupisch, T. (2003). On the relation between input frequency and acquisition patterns from a cross-linguistic perspective. In J. van Kampen & S. Baauw (Eds.), Proceedings of GALA 2003. LOT Occasional Series.
  54. Kupisch, T., Barton, D., Klaschik, E., Lein, T., Stangen, I., & van de Weijer, J. (2014). Foreign accent in adult simultaneous bilinguals. The Heritage Language Journal, 11(2), 123–150. · DOI
  55. Letts, C. (2013). What are the building blocks for language acquisition? Underlying principles of assessment for language impairment in the bilingual context. In V. C. M. Gathercole (Ed.), Solutions for the assessment of bilinguals (pp. 36–56). Bristol, UK: Multilingual Matters. · DOI
  56. Malt, B. C., & Sloman, S. A. (2003). Linguistic diversity and object naming by non-native speakers of English. Bilingualism: Language and Cognition, 6, 47–67. · DOI
  57. Mattys, S. L., & Jusczyk, P. W. (2001). Do infants segment words or recurring contiguous patterns? Journal of Experimental Psychology: Human Perception and Performance, 27, 644–655.
  58. Meisel, J. (1989). Early differentiation of languages in bilingual children. In K. Hyltenstam & L. Obler (Eds.), Bilingualism across the lifespan: Aspects of acquisition, maturity, and loss (pp. 13–40). Cambridge, UK: Cambridge University Press.
  59. Meisel, J. (2001). The simultaneous acquisition of two first languages: Early differentiation and subsequent development of grammars. In J. Cenoz & F. Genesee (Eds.), Trends in bilingual acquisition (pp. 11–41). Amsterdam: Benjamins. · DOI · Paper page
  60. Méndez Pérez, A., Peña, E. D., & Bedore, L. M. (2010). Cognates facilitate word recognition in young Spanish-English bilinguals’ test performance. Early Childhood Services, 4, 55–67.
  61. Montrul, S., Foote, R., & Perpiñán, S. (2008). Knowledge of wh movement in Spanish L2 learners and heritage speakers. In J. Bruhn de Garavito & E. Valenzuela (Eds.), Selected proceedings of the 10th Hispanic linguistics symposium (pp. 93–106). Somerville, Australia: Cascadilla Proceedings Project.
  62. Nagy, W. E., García, G. E., Durgunoğlu, A. Y., & Hancin-Bhatt, B. (1993). Spanish-English bilingual students’ use of cognates in English reading. Journal of Literacy Research, 25, 241–259.
  63. O’Toole, C. (2013). Using parent report to assess bilingual vocabulary acquisition: A model from Irish. In V. C. M. Gathercole (Ed.), Solutions for the assessment of bilinguals (pp. 81–102). Bristol, UK: Multilingual Matters. · DOI
  64. Oller, D. K. (2005). The distributed characteristic in bilingual learning. In J. Cohen, K. McAlister, K. Rolstad, & J. MacSwan (Eds.), ISB4: Proceedings of the 4th International Symposium on Bilingualism, Somerville (pp. 1744–1749). Somerville, MA: Cascadilla Press.
  65. Oller, D. K., & Eilers, R. E. (2002a). Balancing interpretations regarding effects of bilingualism: Empirical outcomes and theoretical possibilities. In D. K. Oller & R. E. Eilers (Eds.), Language and literacy in bilingual children (pp. 281–292). Clevedon, UK: Multilingual Matters. · DOI
  66. Oller, D. K., & Eilers, R. E. (Eds.). (2002b). Language and literacy in bilingual children. Clevedon, UK: Multilingual Matters. · DOI
  67. Oller, D. K., Jarmulowicz, L., Pearson, B. Z., & Cobo-Lewis, A. B. (2011). Rapid spoken language shift in early second-language learning: The role of peers and effects on the first language. In A. Durgunouglu & C. Goldenberg (Eds.), Language and literacy development in bilingual settings (pp. 94–120). New York: Guilford Press.
  68. Oller, D. K., & Pearson, B. Z. (2002). Assessing the effects of bilingualism: A background. In D. K. Oller & R. E. Eilers (Eds.), Language and literacy in bilingual children (pp. 3–21). Clevedon, UK: Multilingual Matters.
  69. Oller, D. K., Pearson, B. Z., & Cobo-Lewis, A. B. (2007). Profile effects in early bilingual language and literacy. Applied PsychoLinguistics, 28, 191–230. · DOI
  70. Paap, K. R., Johnson, H. A., & Sawi, O. (2015). Bilingual advantages in executive functioning either do not exist or are restricted to very specific and undetermined circumstances. Cortex, 69, 265–278. · DOI
  71. Paradis, J., & Kirova, A. (2014). English second-language learners in preschool: Profile effects in their English abilities and the role of home language environment. International Journal of Behavioral Development, 38, 342–349. · DOI
  72. Patterson, J., & Pearson, B. Z. (2004). Bilingual lexical development: Influences, contexts, and processes. In G. Goldstein (Ed.), Bilingual language development and disorders in Spanish-English speakers (pp. 77–104). Baltimore: Paul Brookes.
  73. Pavlenko, A. (2003). Eyewitness memory in late bilinguals: Evidence for discursive relativity. International Journal of Bilingualism, 7, 257–281. · DOI
  74. Pavlenko, A., & Jarvis, S. (2002). Bidirectional transfer. Applied Linguistics, 23, 190–214. · DOI
  75. Pavlenko, A., & Malt, B. C. (2011). Kitchen Russian: Cross-linguistic differences and first-language object naming by Russian-English bilinguals. Bilingualism: Language and Cognition, 14, 19–45. · DOI
  76. Pearson, B. Z., & Fernández, S. (1994). Patterns of interaction in the lexical growth in two languages of bilingual infants and toddlers. Language Learning, 44, 617–653. · DOI
  77. Pearson, B. Z., Fernández, S., & Oller, D. K. (1993). Lexical development in bilingual infants and toddlers: Comparison to monolingual norms. Language Learning, 43, 93–120. · DOI · Paper page
  78. Pearson, B. Z., Fernández, S., & Oller, D. K. (1995). Cross-language synonyms in the lexicons of bilingual infants: One language or two? Journal of Child Language, 22, 345–368. · DOI
  79. Peña, E. D., Bedore, L. M., & Fiestas, C. (2013). Development of bilingual semantic norms: Can two be one? In V. C. M. Gathercole (Ed.), Solutions for the assessment of bilinguals (pp. 103–124). Bristol, UK: Multilingual Matters.
  80. Place, S., & Hoff, E. (2011). Properties of dual language exposure that influence 2-year-olds’ bilingual proficiency. Child Development, 82, 1834–1849. · DOI · Paper page
  81. Quay, S., & Montanari, S. (2016). Early bilingualism: From differentiation to the impact of family language practices. In E. Nicoladis & S. Montanari (Eds.), Bilingualism across the lifespan: Factors moderating language proficiency (pp. 23–42). Washington, DC: Mouton de Gruyter, American Psychological Association. · DOI
  82. Raviv, T., Kessenich, M., & Morrison, F. J. (2004). A meditational model of the association between socioeconomic status and three-year-old language abilities: The role of parenting factors. Early Childhood Research Quarterly, 19, 528–547. · DOI
  83. Ribot, K. M., & Hoff, E. (2014). “¿Cómo estás?” “I’m good.” conversational code-switching is related to profiles of expressive and receptive proficiency in Spanish-English bilingual toddlers. International Journal of Behavioral Development, 38, 333–341. · DOI
  84. Rieckborn, S. (2006). The development of forms and functions in the acquisition of tense and aspect in German-French bilingual children. In C. Lleó (Ed.), Interfaces in multilingualism: Acquisition and representation (pp. 61–89). Amsterdam: John Benjamins. · DOI
  85. Saffran, J. R., Aslin, R. N., & Newport, E. L. (1996a). Statistical learning by 8-month-old infants. Science, 274, 1926–1928. · DOI · Paper page
  86. Schelletter, C. (2002). The effect of form similarity on bilingual children’s lexical development. Bilingualism: Language and Cognition, 5, 93–108. · DOI
  87. Silva-Corvalán, C., & Treffers-Daller, J. (Eds.). (2015). Language dominance in bilinguals: Issues of measurement and operationalization. Cambridge, UK: Cambridge University Press.
  88. Snow, C., & Hakuta, K. (1992). The costs of monolingualism. In J. Crawford (Ed.), Language loyalties (pp. 384–394). Chicago, IL: University of Chicago Press.
  89. Sorace, A. (2003). Near-nativeness. In M. Long & C. Doughty (Eds.), Handbook of second language acquisition (pp. 130–152). Oxford: Blackwell. · DOI
  90. Stadthagen-González, H., Gathercole, V. C. M., Pérez-Tattam, R., & Yavas, F. (2013). Vocabulary assessment of bilingual adults: To cognate or not to cognate. In V. C. M. Gathercole (Ed.), Solutions for the assessment of bilinguals (pp. 125–145). Bristol, UK: Multilingual Matters.
  91. Thomas, E. M., Gathercole, V. C. M., & Hughes, E. K. (2013). Sociolinguistic influences on the linguistic achievement of bilinguals: Issues for the assessment of minority language competence. In V. C. M. Gathercole (Ed.), Solutions for the assessment of bilinguals (pp. 175–193). Bristol, UK: Multilingual Matters. · DOI
  92. Tsimpli, I. M., & Sorace, A. (2006). Differentiating interfaces: L2 performance in syntax semantics and syntax discourse phenomena. In D. Bamman, T. Magnitskaia, & C. Zaller (Eds.), Proceedings of the 30th annual Boston University Conference on Language Development, BUCLD 30 (pp. 653–664). Somerville, MA: Cascadilla Press.
  93. Unsworth, S. (2016). Quantity and quality of language input in bilingual language development. In E. Nicoladis & S. Montanari (Eds.), Bilingualism across the lifespan: Factors moderating language proficiency (pp. 103–122). Washington, DC: Mouton de Gruyter, American Psychological Association.
  94. Werker, J. F., Yeung, H. H., & Yoshida, K. A. (2012). How do infants become experts at native-speech perception? Current Directions in Psychological Science, 21, 221–226. · DOI
  95. Wolff, P., & Ventura, T. (2009). When Russians learn English: How the semantics of causation may change. Bilingualism: Language and Cognition, 12, 153–176. · DOI
  96. Wong-Fillmore, L. (2000). Loss of family languages: Should educators be concerned? Theory Into Practice, 39, 203–210. · DOI

Cited by

Sorted by citations

Metadata

Authors
Gathercole, V. M.
Affiliations
Florida International University (US)
Corresponding author
Gathercole, Virginia Mueller
Venue
Language Policy
Publisher
Springer International Publishing
Published
2018
Pages
237-255
ISSN
  • 1571-5361 (ISSN-L)
  • 2452-1027
DOI
10.1007/978-3-319-75963-0_14
OpenAlex
W2803226924
Cited by
4
References
2
Citations by year
2024: 1 · 2021: 1 · 2020: 1 · 2019: 1
FWCI
2.74
Type
book chapter
Language
en
Open access
closed
Licence
www.springer.com/tdm (unspecified)
Locations
Language policy (publishedVersion)
Topics
  • Social Sciences › Psychology › Developmental and Educational Psychology › Language Development and Disorders
  • Social Sciences › Linguistics and Language › Multilingual Education and Policy
  • Social Sciences › Psychology › Developmental and Educational Psychology › Hearing Impairment and Communication
Keywords
bilingual children, language development, bilingualism, language acquisition, evidence-based practice, speech therapy, child language

About these checks

Registry, retraction, Cites and statistics results are computed, not judged, with one exception: a printed reference that no index lists is read once by a model before it counts as a citation error. Claims are extracted by a model and kept only when their quote appears verbatim in the text; each cited source is then checked, with a model’s help, for whether it says what the claim relies on. Those verdicts can be wrong — read the claim’s quote and the cited source before relying on one.

Statistics and arithmetic are recomputed, not judged.

Confidence bands are shown only for fields calibrated on our annotated test set. None is calibrated yet, so no band is shown.

What counts as a claim ›How we measure confidence ›How we check this ›

Are you an author, or do you see a problem with this page? Request a review