A novel diabetes typology: towards precision diabetology from pathogenesis to treatment
Open accessAbstract
The current classification of diabetes, based on hyperglycaemia, islet-directed antibodies and some insufficiently defined clinical features, does not reflect differences in aetiological mechanisms and in the clinical course of people with diabetes. This review discusses evidence from recent studies addressing the complexity of diabetes by proposing novel subgroups (subtypes) of diabetes. The most widely replicated and validated approach identified, in addition to severe autoimmune diabetes, four subgroups designated severe insulin-deficient diabetes, severe insulin-resistant diabetes, mild obesity-related diabetes and mild age-related diabetes subgroups. These subgroups display distinct patterns of clinical features, disease progression and onset of comorbidities and complications, with severe insulin-resistant diabetes showing the highest risk for cardiovascular, kidney and fatty liver diseases. While it has been suggested that people in these subgroups would benefit from stratified treatments, RCTs are required to assess the clinical utility of any reclassification effort. Several methodological and practical issues also need further study: the statistical approach used to define subgroups and derive recommendations for diabetes care; the stability of subgroups over time; the optimal dataset (e.g. phenotypic vs genotypic) for reclassification; the transethnic generalisability of findings; and the applicability in clinical routine care. Despite these open questions, the concept of a new classification of diabetes has already allowed researchers to gain more insight into the colourful picture of diabetes and has stimulated progress in this field so that precision diabetology may become reality in the future.
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Different subtypes/endotypes/clusters of T2D are associated with different risks of disease progression, with particularly high risk for MASLD/MASH progression in individuals with severe insulin resistance.
“Different subtypes/endotypes/clusters of T2D are associated with different risks of disease progression, 58,59 with particularly high risk for MASLD/MASH progression in those individuals with severe insulin resistance.”
From EASL-EASD-EASO Clinical Practice Guidelines on the management of metabolic dysfunction-associated steatotic liver disease (MASLD). (2024) · cites this paper as [59]
In “Diabetes subgroups” (Table 1; page not supplied), the paper reports that T2D subgroups differ in complication risk and that the severe insulin-resistant subgroup has the highest NAFLD prevalence and fibrosis score. “Genetic predisposition” links this subgroup to possible NAFLD progression to fibrosis. It does not establish a particularly high risk of MASLD/MASH progression specifically; its progression discussion is narrower and qualified. (LLM, conf=0.86)
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Heterogeneity of glycaemic phenotypes in type 1 diabetes
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A global initiative to deliver precision health in diabetes
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Self-citationAdvancing precision medicine in metabolic dysfunction-associated steatotic liver disease.
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Definition, Klassifikation, Diagnostik und Differenzialdiagnostik des Diabetes mellitus: Update 2022
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Metabotyping: a tool for identifying subgroups for tailored nutrition advice
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Adipocentric Strategy for the Treatment of Type 2 Diabetes Mellitus
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Precision Medicine in Type 1 Diabetes
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Correlates of Skeletal Muscle Mass and Differences Between Novel Subtypes in Recent-Onset Diabetes
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Association of dietary patterns with diabetes-related comorbidities varies among diabetes endotypes
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Self-citationAssociations of carbohydrate quality and cardiovascular risk factors vary among diabetes subtypes
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Definition, Klassifikation, Diagnostik und Differenzialdiagnostik des Diabetes mellitus: Update 2024
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Self-citationDefinition, Klassifikation, Diagnostik und Differenzialdiagnostik des Diabetes mellitus: Update 2022
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Pathophysiological hallmarks in type 2 diabetes heterogeneity (review)
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Cohort profile of the Heidelberg study on diabetes and complications HEIST-DiC
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The antioxidant activity of Chuju polysaccharide and its effects on the viscera of diabetic mice
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Self-citationPinpointing precision medicine for diabetes mellitus
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Self-citationDefinition, Klassifikation, Diagnostik und Differenzialdiagnostik des Diabetes mellitus: Update 2025
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Self-citationPolymerase Chain Reaction Chips for Biomarker Discovery and Validation in Drug Development
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Tip 2 Diyabette Semptom Durumu, Öz Yönetim ve Bakım Bağımlılığı Arasındaki İlişkiye Genel Bakış
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Precision diabetology: Where do we stand now?
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Clinical and Microbiological Periodontal Biofilm Evaluation of Patients with Type I Diabetes
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Indokolt-e a klasszifikáció módosítása diabetesben?
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Subphenotypes of adult‐onset diabetes: Data‐driven clustering in the population‐based KORA cohort
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Diabetes prevention and treatment: a global perspective
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Self-citationMetabolic Cardiovascular Renal Disease (Met‐CVRD): A New Nomenclature
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Self-citationDefinition, Klassifikation, Diagnostik und Differenzialdiagnostik des Diabetes mellitus: Update 2023
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Type 2 diabetes across populations of different ancestry: deconstructing the genomic landscape
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Self-citationUncovering actionable cardiovascular risk subgroups in type 2 Diabetes: A latent class analysis
Geurten, R. J., Hameleers, N., Struijs, J. N., Bilo, H. J. G., Ruwaard, D., & Elissen, A. (2025) · Diabetes Research and Clinical Practice · doi:10.1016/j.diabres.2025.112110 · Cited by 1 · see citing works
- Authors
- Herder, C., & Roden, M.
- Affiliations
- Düsseldorf University Hospital (DE)
- Corresponding author
- Herder, Christian
- Roden, Michael
- Venue
- Diabetologia
- Published
- 2022-01-04
- Volume
- 65
- Issue
- 11
- Pages
- 1770-1781
- ISSN
- 0012-186X (ISSN-L)
- 1432-0428
- PMC
- PMC9522691
- OpenAlex
- W4206342425
- Cited by
- 140
- References
- 69
- Citations by year
- 2026: 21 · 2025: 37 · 2024: 34 · 2023: 33 · 2022: 15
- FWCI
- 4.24
- Type
- journal article
- Language
- en
- Open access
- hybrid
- doi.org
- Locations
- Diabetologia (publishedVersion, cc-by)
- PubMed Central (publishedVersion, cc-by)
- PubMed (publishedVersion)
- Informationszentrum Lebenswissenschaften (ZB MED) (submittedVersion, cc-by)
- Funders
- German Center for Diabetes Research
- German Federal Ministry of Education and Research
- German Federal Ministry of Health
- Ministry of Culture and Science of the State of North Rhine-Westphalia
- Topics
- Health Sciences › Medicine › Endocrinology, Diabetes and Metabolism › Diabetes Management and Research
- Life Sciences › Biochemistry, Genetics and Molecular Biology › Genetics › Diabetes and associated disorders
- Health Sciences › Medicine › Endocrinology, Diabetes and Metabolism › Diabetes, Cardiovascular Risks, and Lipoproteins
- Keywords
- diabetes classification, diabetes subtypes, autoimmune diabetes, insulin-deficient diabetes, obesity-related diabetes, age-related diabetes, pathogenesis, diabetes complications, cardiovascular risk, diabetic nephropathy, hepatic steatosis, treatment stratification
- MeSH terms
- Diabetes Mellitus, Type 1, Humans, Hyperglycemia, Insulin Resistance, Comorbidity, Insulins
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Registry, retraction, Cites and statistics results are computed, not judged, with one exception: a printed reference that no index lists is read once by a model before it counts as a citation error. Claims are extracted by a model and kept only when their quote appears verbatim in the text; each cited source is then checked, with a model’s help, for whether it says what the claim relies on. Those verdicts can be wrong — read the claim’s quote and the cited source before relying on one.
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