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Magnetic orientation and magnetoreception in birds and other animals
Abstract
Animals use the geomagnetic field in many ways: the magnetic vector provides a compass; magnetic intensity and/or inclination play a role as a component of the navigational 'map', and magnetic conditions of certain regions act as 'sign posts' or triggers, eliciting specific responses. A magnetic compass is widespread among animals, magnetic navigation is indicated e.g. in birds, marine turtles and spiny lobsters and the use of magnetic 'sign posts' has been described for birds and marine turtles. For magnetoreception, two hypotheses are currently discussed, one proposing a chemical compass based on a radical pair mechanism, the other postulating processes involving magnetite particles. The available evidence suggests that birds use both mechanisms, with the radical pair mechanism in the right eye providing directional information and a magnetite-based mechanism in the upper beak providing information on position as component of the 'map'. Behavioral data from other animals indicate a light-dependent compass probably based on a radical pair mechanism in amphibians and a possibly magnetite-based mechanism in mammals. Histological and electrophysiological data suggest a magnetite-based mechanism in the nasal cavities of salmonid fish. Little is known about the parts of the brain where the respective information is processed.
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“The field of neurophysics already attests to the fact that the study of the brain borrows from ideas across the spectrum of physics: electricity and magnetism, mechanics, thermo-dynamics, optics 15 .”
From Quantum effects in the brain: A review (2020) · cites this paper as [15]
In the citing paper
“It is the singlet -triplet mixing that experiences the influence of the Earth's magnetic field and that has offered some way of explaining behavioural observations such as the light-dependence [94], inclination aspect [95] and resonance effects of the avian compass [96,97].”
From The future of quantum biology (2018) · cites this paper as [95]
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Potential use of a magnetic compass during long-distance dispersal in a subterranean rodent
Finn, K. T. (2020) · Journal of Mammalogy · doi:10.1093/jmammal/gyaa163 · Cited by 4
“The receptor in bats and subterranean rodents probably is magnetite-mediated, where particles of magnetite in the body align upon receiving geomagnetic cues to provide directional information that assists in goal-oriented travel (Wiltschko and Wiltschko 2005; Moritz et al.”
BackgroundInfluentialMagnetic and sunset orientation in migratory redwings,Turdus iliacus
Huttunen, M. J. (2009) · The European Zoological Journal · doi:10.1080/11250000802319172 · Cited by 3
“A reversal of the inclination of the magnetic field has often resulted in a reversal of direction, as observed in many analysed species (e.g. Wiltschko & Wiltschko 1996, 2005 for reviews).”
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“However, as magnetic orientation is known for a large variety of other non-molluscan taxa (Wiltschko and Wiltschko 1995; Wiltschko and Wiltschko 2001, 2005; Winklhofer 2005), it might also be more common in molluscs than is currently realised.”
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Nishimura, T. (2020) · Animals · doi:10.3390/ani10030489 · Cited by 3
“Currently, researchers have proposed two hypotheses regarding magnetoreception: that it is a chemical compass that is driven by a radical-pair mechanism, and that it is a process involving magnetite particles [14].”
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A magnetic compass guides the direction of foraging in a bat
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“A growing number of studies have shown that the geomagnetic field represents an important physical reference for the orientation and navigation of animals both terrestrial and marine (Dubrov 1978; Wiltschko and Wiltschko 1995, 2005; Walker et al.”
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Cryptochrome Expression in the Zebrafish Retina: Potential Implications for Magnetoreception
Balay, S. D. (2018) · ERA: Education and Research Archive (University of Alberta) · doi:10.7939/r3959cq36 · Cited by 3
Spatial Perception and Cognition, Insights From Virtual Reality Experiments
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“Birds, fish, turtles, and a range of other species rely on magnetoreception to find habitats critical for their reproduction and survival (Wiltschko and Wiltschko, 2005; Lohmann et al., 2007; Lohmann and correspondence should be addressed.”
BackgroundWan, H., Wang, W., Zhang, Y., Xu, C., Zhang, J., Li, M., Ma, K., Wang, J., Wang, Y., & Wang, J. (2025) · International Journal of Biological Macromolecules · doi:10.1016/j.ijbiomac.2025.145863 · Cited by 2
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Jahan, F., & Ali, H. (2026) · Wetlands: ecology, conservation and management · doi:10.1007/978-3-032-17125-2_3 · Cited by 2
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“Algorithmic based on the natural human evolution principle [3], swarm intelligence behavior-based algorithms [4, 5], physics patterns called algorithms [6, 7], and algorithms based on human cognitive behavior [8] are among them.”
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Castellón, T. D., Deyle, A. C., Farmer, A. L., Bauder, J. M., Roznik, E. A., & Johnson, S. A. (2022) · Herpetologica · doi:10.1655/herpetologica-d-20-00061 · Cited by 2
“However, it is important to note that lack of orientation toward initial capture sites does not preclude attempted homing based on Y-axis or compass orientation (reviewed by Wiltschko and Wiltschko 2005).”
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Gedela, N. S. S., Radawiec, R. D., Salim, S., Richie, J. M., Chestek, C. A., Draelos, A., & Pelled, G. (2025) · Bioelectronic Medicine · doi:10.1186/s42234-025-00166-9 · Cited by 2
“Both supervised and unsupervised machine learning methods can be used across a wide variety of animal models to classify and cluster behavioral features into these more relevant phenotypes (Wiltschko and Wiltschko 2005; Marques et al. 2018; Hsu and Yttri 2021).”
Orientación magnética y magnetorrecepción en anfibios
Diego‐Rasilla, F. J., & García, L. R. (2007) · Dialnet (Universidad de la Rioja) · Cited by 2
Bird Navigation: A Clear View of Magnetoreception
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“It is well known that birds, bees, turtles and some other animals are shown to sense earth magnetic fields for direction during migration (Lohmann and Johnsen 2000; Wiltschko and Wiltschko 2005; Johnsen and Lohmann 2008).”
BackgroundMagnetic phenomena and living systems in the bio area degrees
Caltun, O. F., Michelini, M., & Stefanel, A. (2019) · Journal of Physics Conference Series · doi:10.1088/1742-6596/1286/1/012023 · Cited by 2
“It promotes skills in analyzing magnetic phenomena and processes in living systems, and applying these competencies to understand the physics concepts involved in the papers recommended for lecture [6, 26], in important applications like the NMR technique [7], or in the processes fundamental to the ability of some liv…”
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“45 Two sensory mechanisms have been identified.”
Gim, B.-M., Kim, S. J., Moon, S.-D., Lee, J., & Choi, T. S. (2021) · Journal of the Korean Society for Marine Environment & Energy · doi:10.7846/jkosmee.2021.24.4.282 · Cited by 2
The Light-Dependent Magnetic Compass
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Genetics of Animal and Bird Migration
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Swimming direction of the glass catfish is responsive to magnetic stimulationPreprint
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“While animals like salmonids, pigeons, eels and sea turtles use magnetoreception to migrate over thousands of kilometers [1-10], nonmigratory fish species have also shown evidence of magnetoreception [11, 12].”
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“Research on the biological effects of SMF orientation has primarily focused on phenomena such as the movement of mag-netotactic bacteria and animal navigation (Wiltschko and Wiltschko 2005).”
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“There are animals that can sense directly magnetic[4] and electric[5] fields, animals that navigate by echo-location, creatures that sense more the visual portion of the spectrum, animals that manipulate with flexible appendages (octopuses and elephants) and so on.”
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“In particular, natural EMFs play numerous roles in biological function, and a variety of clinically relevant interactions with the earth's geomagnetic field have been observed (Wiltschko & Wiltschko, 2005).”
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“Several experiments have shown that animals can use the geomagnetic field (GMF) for orientation and homing using a magnetoreception process (Wiltschko & Wiltschko, 2005).”
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“Parallel to these developments, it was early on realized [6, 7] that the magnetic sensitivity of radical-ion pair (RIP) recombination reactions might be at the basis of the biochemical magnetic compass used by several species for navigation in earth’s magnetic field [8].”
BackgroundActuation of Iron Oxide‐Based Nanostructures by External Magnetic Fields
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“Magnetic sense has been 35 reported in many invertebrate and vertebrates [4-6].”
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Social and Physical Cognition in Old World Monkeys - A Comparative Perspective
Schmitt, V. (2012) · eDiss (Georg-August-Universität Göttingen) · doi:10.53846/goediss-1461 · Cited by 1
Frings, S., & Müller, F. U. (2013) · Springer eBooks · doi:10.1007/978-3-8274-2273-6_9 · Cited by 1
Mechanisms of Avian Magnetic Orientation
Dominic, R. J., & Che, Y. (2009) · Zoological Research · doi:10.3724/sp.j.1141.2009.02221
Cryptochrome Magnetoreception Mechanism Indicates a New Kind of Magnetometer
Du, X., Wang, X., & Wu, W. (2010) · Advances in natural science/Advances in natural sciences · doi:10.3968/j.ans.1715787020100302.038
Wahrnehmung elektrischer und magnetischer Felder; Infrarotortung
Müller, W. A., Frings, S., & Möhrlen, F. (2015) · Springer eBooks · doi:10.1007/978-3-662-43942-5_18
Magnetic Sense in Animal Navigation
Ritz, T. (2009) · Elsevier eBooks · doi:10.1016/b978-008045046-9.01984-7
Bioinspired design of material with magneto optic coupling for electromagnetic sensing
Taddei, C., Zuppolini, S., Borriello, A., Giordano, M., Wei, Z., & Serra, C. A. (2015) · AISEM Annual Conference · doi:10.1109/aisem.2015.7066846
“This field is an omnipresent source of navigational information which is of two kinds: the magnetic vector provides directional information and can be used as a compass, while total intensity and/or inclination show gradients between the magnetic poles and the magnetic equator and may thus be used as a component of a…”
BackgroundEin Magnetometer im Schnabel aller Vögel?
Fleissner, G., Fleiṡsner, G., & Falkenberg, G. (2010) · Biologie in unserer Zeit · doi:10.1002/biuz.201090027
Social and Physical Cognition in Old World Monkeys
Schmitt, V. (2012)
Standardization of the Compass Neuropils of the Australian Bogong Moth, Agrotis infusa
de Vries, L. (2016) · Lund University Publications Student Papers (Lund University)
Caracterização e determinação da ocupação catiônica de nanopartículas de magnetita dopadas com ítrio
da Silva, A. F. (2015) · doi:10.26512/2015.07.d.20366
“Animais com a capacidade de perceber e se orientar pelo campo magnético da Terra possuem cristais de magnetita no cérebro, estes animais incluem abelhas, lagostas, tubarões, arraias, tartarugas e diversas aves como os pombos [19].”
BackgroundDirectional Preference in Drosophila melanogaster
James, T., Baltzley, M. J., Zachary, E., Davis, S., & Latham, K. L. (2016)
Lennox, R. J., Chapman, J. M., Souliere, C. M., Tudorache, C., Wikelski, M. C., Metcalfe, J. D., & Cooke, S. J. (2016)
Migration under ephemeral conditions
Dingle, H. (2014) · Oxford University Press eBooks · doi:10.1093/acprof:oso/9780199640386.003.0011
Polymorphisms and polyphenisms
Dingle, H. (2014) · Oxford University Press eBooks · doi:10.1093/acprof:oso/9780199640386.003.0013
Methods for studying migration
Dingle, H. (2014) · Oxford University Press eBooks · doi:10.1093/acprof:oso/9780199640386.003.0004
Summing up and future directions
Dingle, H. (2014) · Oxford University Press eBooks · doi:10.1093/acprof:oso/9780199640386.003.0016
Metadata
- Authors
- Wiltschko, W., & Wiltschko, R.
- Affiliations
- Goethe University Frankfurt (DE)
- Corresponding author
- Wiltschko, Wolfgang
- ORCID
- Wiltschko, Roswitha
- Venue
- Journal of Comparative Physiology A
- Published
- 2005-05-11
- Volume
- 191
- Issue
- 8
- Pages
- 675-693
- ISSN
- 0340-7594 (ISSN-L)
- 1432-1351
- OpenAlex
- W2079500075
- Cited by
- 587
- References
- 103
- Citations by year
- 2026: 18 · 2025: 23 · 2024: 27 · 2023: 21 · 2022: 27 · 2021: 42 · 2020: 29 · 2019: 39 · 2018: 32 · 2017: 30 · 2016: 26 · 2015: 25 · 2014: 54 · 2013: 30 · 2012: 28
- FWCI
- 12.73
- Type
- journal article
- Language
- en
- Open access
- closed
- Licence
- www.springer.com/tdm (tdm)
- Locations
- Journal of Comparative Physiology A (publishedVersion)
- PubMed (publishedVersion)
- Topics
- Life Sciences › Biochemistry, Genetics and Molecular Biology › Biophysics › Electromagnetic Fields and Biological Effects
- Physical Sciences › Earth and Planetary Sciences › Geophysics › Geomagnetism and Paleomagnetism Studies
- Physical Sciences › Environmental Science › Ecology › Avian ecology and behavior
- Keywords
- magnetoreception, geomagnetic field, magnetic compass, magnetic navigation, birds, sea turtles, spiny lobster, radical pair mechanism, magnetite, magnetic maps, amphibians, salmonids, nasal cavity, animal orientation
- MeSH terms
- Animals, Birds, Magnetics, Orientation, Animal Migration
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