CoChat
Sign Up
Cited by 80Biofield Effects and BiophysicsPhilosophy and Theoretical ScienceQuantum Mechanics and Applications

Quantum effects in the brain: A review

Open access
Adams, Betony, Petruccione, Francesco·2020·AVS Quantum Science
DOI 10.1116/1.5135170
Open this paper in CoChat — free accountOpen PDF

Abstract

In the mid-1990s, it was proposed that quantum effects in proteins known as microtubules play a role in the nature of consciousness. The theory was largely dismissed due to the fact that quantum effects were thought unlikely to occur in biological systems, which are warm and wet and subject to decoherence. However, the development of quantum biology now suggests otherwise. Quantum effects have been implicated in photosynthesis, a process fundamental to life on earth. They are also possibly at play in other biological processes such as avian migration and olfaction. The microtubule mechanism of quantum consciousness has been joined by other theories of quantum cognition. It has been proposed that general anesthetic, which switches off consciousness, does this through quantum means, measured by changes in electron spin. The tunneling hypothesis developed in the context of olfaction has been applied to the action of neurotransmitters. A recent theory outlines how quantum entanglement between phosphorus nuclei might influence the firing of neurons. These, and other theories, have contributed to a growing field of research that investigates whether quantum effects might contribute to neural processing. This review aims to investigate the current state of this research and how fully the theory is supported by convincing experimental evidence. It also aims to clarify the biological sites of these proposed quantum effects and how progress made in the wider field of quantum biology might be relevant to the specific case of the brain.

AI snapshot

Written from the paper’s full text.

TL;DR

This review surveys theories proposing non-trivial quantum effects in neural processing—microtubules/Orch OR, anaesthetic action, neurotransmitter binding, biophotons, magnetic-field effects, and Posner-molecule entanglement—and finds the field remains largely theoretical with conflicting experimental support. It argues progress in quantum biology makes such hypotheses less implausible, but not yet conclusively demonstrated in the brain.

Key findings

  • Orch OR locates quantum computation in microtubules, especially tubulin aromatic rings and electron/magnetic dipoles; decoherence estimates are disputed, with Tegmark calculating 10⁻¹³–10⁻²⁰ s and Hagan et al. recalculating 10⁻⁵–10⁻⁴ s.
  • Anaesthesia research reports quantum-relevant spin effects: xenon isotopes with non-zero nuclear spin had a lower anaesthetic effect in mice, and Turin et al. found general anaesthetics caused spin changes in anaesthetised fruit flies, though melanin and unphysiological conditions were acknowledged confounds.
  • Neurotransmitter vibration-assisted tunnelling is unresolved: Hoehn et al. found selective deuteration of DOI and DAM-57 had no influence on serotonin-receptor binding affinity or activation, while Kržan et al. found deuterating histamine increased its binding affinity.
  • Fisher’s Posner-molecule hypothesis proposes entangled phosphorus nuclear spins could coordinate neural firing, with coherence times estimated as hours or 21 days; Player et al. calculated a shorter relaxation time of 37 minutes. Magnetic-field effects on human alpha waves (8–13 Hz) were attributed more to ferromagnetism than the radical-pair mechanism.

Methods

  • Narrative review of theoretical and experimental literature on proposed quantum effects in neural processes, with no primary data collection.
  • Synthesizes work on microtubules, general anaesthesia, GPCR/neurotransmitter binding, biophotons, mitochondrial electron transfer, magnetic-field effects, and neural entanglement.
  • Main analysis is qualitative: compares proposed biological sites and mechanisms, evaluates experimental support, and identifies possible future tests such as two-dimensional electronic spectroscopy.

Limitations

  • Stated in the paper: the research remains largely theoretical; some experimental evidence supports certain theories, but conflicting results make strong conclusions difficult.
  • Stated experimental caveats include Turin et al.’s spin changes possibly arising from melanin, experiments conducted at 6 °C (with only 2–10 °C variation) and anoxic conditions, possible contaminant confounds in deuterated-odourant studies, and uncertainty whether Posner molecules exist in vivo.
  • Evident from the text: this is a non-systematic narrative review without stated search or inclusion criteria, and it relies in places on preprints, unpublished preliminary reports, and secondary citations; the provided text is also fragmented, making some claims difficult to verify.

Model-written summary. Check it against the paper before relying on it.

Integrity signals

Registry

Crossref · 10.1116/1.5135170

Cites

222 of 222 references verified0 citation errors · 0 not checkable

Statistics

Nothing to recompute.

Claims the paper makes

0 of 91 cited sources checked · 0 supported · 0 flagged

  • Premisecitation

    Certain chemicals that influence both consciousness and cognitive function, such as general anaesthetics and antidepressants, involve microtubules.

    “This is supported by the fact that certain chemicals that influence both consciousness as well as cognitive function, such as general anaesthetics and antidepressants, involve microtubules 9,61,62 .”
    Quote in the paperSubstantial claim0 of 3 sources checked
    • cites [9] 2005, Nature source

      Not checked in the free run.

    • cites [61] 2018, J. Cognit. Sci. source

      Not checked in the free run.

    • cites [62] 2010, J. Biol. Phys. source

      Not checked in the free run.

  • Premisecitation

    Research in the field of quantum biology has had some success in identifying how quantum processes might benefit living organisms.

    “Research in the field of quantum biology has had some success in identifying how quantum processes might benefit living organisms [1][2][3][4][5] .”
    Quote in the paperNot a substantial claim0 of 3 sources checked
    • cites [1] 2018, J. R. Soc. Interface source

      Not checked in the free run.

    • cites [2] 2014

      Not checked in the free run.

    • cites [3] 2018, Proc. R. Soc. A source

      Not checked in the free run.

  • Interpretationcitation

    The mutual exclusion of biological and quantum systems is no longer so absolute.

    “However, the mutual exclusion of biological and quantum systems is no longer so absolute.”
    Quote in the paperSubstantial claim0 of 3 sources checked
    • cites [1] 2018, J. R. Soc. Interface source

      Not checked in the free run.

    • cites [2] 2014

      Not checked in the free run.

    • cites [3] 2018, Proc. R. Soc. A source

      Not checked in the free run.

  • Interpretationcitation

    The fact that cognition in simple single-celled organisms such as slime moulds is linked to cytoskeletal microtubules points to a possible site for the action of general anaesthetics.

    “The fact that this cognition is linked to cytoskeletal microtubules points to a possible site for the action of general anaesthetics 64,75 .”
    Quote in the paperSubstantial claim0 of 2 sources checked
    • cites [64] 2000, Phys. Rev. E source

      Not checked in the free run.

    • cites [75] 2015, Curr. Top. Med. Chem. source

      Not checked in the free run.

  • Premisecitation

    Anaesthetics act in lipid-like hydrophobic regions in proteins.

    “Further research suggests that anaesthetics act in lipid-like hydrophobic regions in proteins 64 .”
    Quote in the paperSubstantial claim0 of 1 sources checked
    • cites [64] 2000, Phys. Rev. E source

      Not checked in the free run.

  • Classified as probably not a substantial claim. 30
  • May combine two claims. 12

  • Probably not a substantial claim: may not pass S3 (load-bearing). May combine two claims.

    Premisecitation

    The avian compass has been suggested to exploit quantum effects with behavioural evidence supporting the hypothesis.

    “The avian compass has also been suggested to exploit quantum effects with behavioural evidence supporting the hypothesis.”
    Quote in the paperNot a substantial claim0 of 3 sources checked
    • cites [1] 2018, J. R. Soc. Interface source

      Not checked in the free run.

    • cites [2] 2014

      Not checked in the free run.

    • cites [3] 2018, Proc. R. Soc. A source

      Not checked in the free run.

  • May combine two claims.

    Premisecitation

    Microtubules in dendrites and nerve cell bodies are prevented from disassembly by microtubule associated proteins, rendering them more stable and able to encode long-term information necessary to Orch OR.

    “Microtubules in dendrites and nerve cell bodies are prevented from disassembly by microtubule associated proteins, rendering them more stable and able to encode the long-term information necessary to the theory of Orch OR 9,41,42 .”
    Quote in the paperSubstantial claim0 of 3 sources checked
    • cites [9] 2005, Nature source

      Not checked in the free run.

    • cites [41] 2018, NeuroImage source

      Not checked in the free run.

    • cites [42] 2013

      Not checked in the free run.

  • Probably not a substantial claim: may not pass S3 (load-bearing).

    Premisecitation

    Quantum effects have been implicated in photosynthesis.

    “Quantum effects have been implicated in photosynthesis, a process fundamental to life on earth.”
    Quote in the paperNot a substantial claim0 of 3 sources checked
    • cites [49] 2016, Nat. Rev. Neurosci. source

      Not checked in the free run.

    • cites [50] 2018, Front. Neurosci. source

      Not checked in the free run.

    • cites [51] 2013, Mens Sana Monogr. source

      Not checked in the free run.

  • Probably not a substantial claim: may not pass S2 (checkable), S3 (load-bearing), S4 (based).

    Interpretationreasoning

    The basic biology of the brain is perhaps not, on a mechanistic level, so very different from other processes that take place in the body.

    “The basic biology of the brain, elevated though it is by the inexplicable phenomenon of consciousness, is perhaps not, on a mechanistic level, so very different from other processes that take place in the body.”
    Quote in the paperNot a substantial claim

  • Probably not a substantial claim: may not pass S2 (checkable).

    Interpretationreasoning

    Quantum theory might have at least some contribution to make to understanding how the brain and its related systems work.

    “Being that it is still not perfectly understood exactly how the brain and its related systems work, quantum theory might have at least some contribution to make.”
    Quote in the paperNot a substantial claim

  • Probably not a substantial claim: may not pass S3 (load-bearing).

    Premisecitation

    All biological systems are quantum mechanical, being composed of atoms and thus subject to the quantum theory of atomic structure.

    “On a fundamental level, it can be said that all biological systems are quantum mechanical, being composed of atoms and thus subject to the quantum theory of atomic structure first developed by Bohr and Rutherford at the beginning of the twentieth century 6,7 .”
    Quote in the paperNot a substantial claim0 of 2 sources checked
    • cites [6] 2009

      Not checked in the free run.

    • cites [7] 1987

      Not checked in the free run.

  • May combine two claims.

    Premisecitation

    Tubulin is partially composed of chromophores such as tryptophan, arranged in a manner similar to photosynthetic systems in plants and bacteria, which have been surmised to support coherent quantum effects.

    “The specific composition of tubulin has also lent strength to quantum models of neural processing due to the fact that it is partially composed of chromophores such as tryptophan, arranged in a manner similar to photosynthetic systems in plants and bacteria 43,44 , which have been surmised to support coherent quantum effects.”
    Quote in the paperNot a substantial claim0 of 2 sources checked
    • cites [43] 2013, Annu. Rev. Psychol. source

      Not checked in the free run.

    • cites [44] 2019, Crit. Care source

      Not checked in the free run.

  • Classified as probably not a substantial claim. May combine two claims.

    Interpretationcitation

    Microtubule arrangement in dendrites and cell bodies of nerve cells is suitable for information processing, making them a good contender for the biological site of consciousness.

    “As outlined above, microtubule arrangement in the dendrites and cell bodies of nerve cells is suitable for information processing, making them a good contender for the biological site of consciousness 9,40,42 .”
    Quote in the paperSubstantial claim0 of 3 sources checked
    • cites [9] 2005, Nature source

      Not checked in the free run.

    • cites [40] 2000

      Not checked in the free run.

    • cites [42] 2013

      Not checked in the free run.

  • Probably not a substantial claim: may not pass S3 (load-bearing). May combine two claims.

    Premisecitation

    The predictions of Orch OR favour type A lattice arrangement whereas actual mouse brain tissue points to the predominance of type B.

    “The predictions of Orch OR favour type A whereas actual mouse brain tissue points to the predominance of type B.”
    Quote in the paperNot a substantial claim0 of 2 sources checked
    • cites [9] 2005, Nature source

      Not checked in the free run.

    • cites [55] 2012, J. Cell Sci. source

      Not checked in the free run.

  • Probably not a substantial claim: may not pass S3 (load-bearing), S4 (based).

    Interpretationnone given

    With the development of quantum biology, the question of whether quantum mechanics can contribute meaningful insight into biological organisms has shifted towards a positive answer.

    “With the development of quantum biology the question of whether quantum mechanics can contribute any meaningful insight into the functioning of biological organisms has shifted towards a positive answer.”
    Quote in the paperNot a substantial claim

  • Probably not a substantial claim: may not pass S3 (load-bearing).

    Interpretationnone given

    The suitability of microtubules as a site for quantum effects has given rise to a number of related approaches.

    “While Orch OR theory is not without controversy, the suitability of microtubules as a site for quantum effects has given rise to a number of related approaches.”
    Quote in the paperNot a substantial claim

  • Probably not a substantial claim: may not pass S3 (load-bearing).

    Premisecitation

    Theoretical work suggests that molecular vibration plays some role in ligand function for the histamine receptor.

    “In contrast to this, theoretical work comparing the structure-activity/vibration-activity relationship of the histamine receptor and its various ligands suggests that molecular vibration does play some role in ligand function.”
    Quote in the paperNot a substantial claim0 of 1 sources checked
    • cites [119] 2011, Proc. Natl. Acad. Sci. U. S. A. source

      Not checked in the free run.

  • Probably not a substantial claim: may not pass S3 (load-bearing).

    Premisecitation

    Recent research investigates the quantum role of neuromelanin facilitated electron transport in sections of the brain.

    “This is potentially interesting in the context of recent research investigating the quantum role of neuromelanin facilitated electron transport in sections of the brain 88 .”
    Quote in the paperNot a substantial claim0 of 1 sources checked
    • cites [88] 2008, Anesth. Analg. source

      Not checked in the free run.

  • Probably not a substantial claim: may not pass S3 (load-bearing).

    Study design and conductcitation

    Neuromelanin might play a role in the spin changes.

    “Although they checked their results against flies deficient in one of three possible melanins, they concede that particularly neuromelanin, the grey in grey matter, might play a role 65 .”
    Quote in the paperNot a substantial claim0 of 1 sources checked
    • cites [65] 2002, Phys. Rev. E source

      Not checked in the free run.

  • Probably not a substantial claim: may not pass S3 (load-bearing).

    Premisecitation

    The binding action of neurotransmitters is conventionally understood as a lock and key mechanism whereby the shape of the neurotransmitter matches its specific receptor.

    “The binding action of neurotransmitters is conventionally understood as a lock and key mechanism whereby the shape of the neurotransmitter matches its specific receptor 98,99 .”
    Quote in the paperNot a substantial claim0 of 2 sources checked
    • cites [98] 2016, Front. Human Neurosci. source

      Not checked in the free run.

    • cites [99] 1990, Nature source

      Not checked in the free run.

  • May combine two claims.

    Premisecitation

    Nerve cells can conduct biophotons, and this effect can be inhibited by the application of a neural conduction block anaesthetic.

    “Following from this Sun et al. present experimental evidence that nerve cells can also conduct biophotons, and that this effect can be inhibited by the application of a neural conduction block anaesthetic 124,133 .”
    Quote in the paperSubstantial claim0 of 2 sources checked
    • cites [124] 2017, eNeuro source

      Not checked in the free run.

    • cites [133] 2012, PLoS One source

      Not checked in the free run.

  • Probably not a substantial claim: may not pass S3 (load-bearing).

    Interpretationreasoning

    The study of general anaesthetics has offered some way of structuring research into quantum neural processing.

    “To this end the study of general anaesthetics has offered some way of structuring research into quantum neural processing.”
    Quote in the paperNot a substantial claim

  • Probably not a substantial claim: may not pass S3 (load-bearing).

    Study design and conductcitation

    The spin changes could be due to melanin.

    “Turin et al. themselves note that the spin changes could be due to melanin.”
    Quote in the paperNot a substantial claim0 of 1 sources checked
    • cites [65] 2002, Phys. Rev. E source

      Not checked in the free run.

  • Probably not a substantial claim: may not pass S3 (load-bearing).

    Premisecitation

    GPCRs are a major drug target associated with one third of all pharmaceuticals.

    “Understanding the mechanism or mechanisms of ligand-GPCR interaction is particularly important due to the fact that GPCRs are a major drug target associated with one third of all pharmaceuticals 103,115 .”
    Quote in the paperNot a substantial claim0 of 2 sources checked
    • cites [103] 1973, Anesthesiology source

      Not checked in the free run.

    • cites [115] 2009, Nature source

      Not checked in the free run.

  • Probably not a substantial claim: may not pass S3 (load-bearing).

    Premisereasoning

    There are a few theories as to how quantum effects are implicated in the action of general anaesthetics.

    “There are a few theories as to how quantum effects are implicated in the action of general anaesthetics.”
    Quote in the paperNot a substantial claim

  • May combine two claims.

    Premisecitation

    There is little verification for a vibrational olfactory mechanism in mammals, but a number of experiments support the theory for insects.

    “While there is little verification for a vibrational olfactory mechanism in mammals, a number of the experiments support the theory for the case of insects.”
    Quote in the paperNot a substantial claim0 of 1 sources checked
    • cites [105] A. Gaitanidis, A. Sotgiu, and L. Turin, preprint arXiv:1907.04764 [physics.bio-ph] (2019).

      Not checked in the free run.

  • Classified as probably not a substantial claim.

    Premisecitation

    Tryptophan rings arranged favourably in tubulin proteins can act as quantum channels supporting coherent electron dynamics in a manner similar to photosynthesis.

    “Building on research that tryptophan rings arranged favourably in tubulin proteins can act as quantum channels supporting coherent electron dynamics in a manner similar to photosynthesis 43,80,81 , Craddock et al. argue that anaesthetic gas molecules binding in these channels inhibit quantum effects and disrupt coherent energy transfer and that this is responsible for the effects of general anaest”
    Quote in the paperSubstantial claim0 of 3 sources checked
    • cites [43] 2013, Annu. Rev. Psychol. source

      Not checked in the free run.

    • cites [80] 2006, Anesthesiology source

      Not checked in the free run.

    • cites [81] 2018, Anesthesiology source

      Not checked in the free run.

  • May combine two claims.

    Premisecitation

    Insect olfactory receptors differ from mammalian G-protein related olfactory receptors, so experimental results may not be generalisable.

    “It should be noted, in a discussion of GPCR mechanisms, that insect olfactory receptors differ from mammalian Gprotein related olfactory receptors and thus experimental results may not be generalisable 105 .”
    Quote in the paperNot a substantial claim0 of 1 sources checked
    • cites [105] A. Gaitanidis, A. Sotgiu, and L. Turin, preprint arXiv:1907.04764 [physics.bio-ph] (2019).

      Not checked in the free run.

  • Classified as probably not a substantial claim.

    Interpretationnone given

    The use of a quantum framework to accurately describe human behaviour does not necessarily mean that this behaviour results from quantum effects in neural processes.

    “The use of a quantum framework to accurately describe human behaviour does not necessarily mean that this behaviour results from quantum effects in neural processes.”
    Quote in the paperSubstantial claim

  • May combine two claims.

    Interpretationcitation

    Halpern and Crosson demonstrate how entanglement can change molecular binding rates, which goes some way to supporting Fisher's neural entanglement hypothesis.

    “They also demonstrate how entanglement can change molecular binding rates, which goes some way to supporting Fisher's neural entanglement hypothesis 204 .”
    Quote in the paperSubstantial claim0 of 1 sources checked
    • cites [204] 2005, Naturwissenschaften source

      Not checked in the free run.

  • May combine two claims.

    Interpretationreasoning

    Although some experimental evidence points to the validity of certain of these theories, conflicting results mean it is difficult to draw any strong conclusions.

    “Although some experimental evidence points to the validity of certain of these theories, conflicting results mean it is difficult to draw any strong conclusions.”
    Quote in the paperSubstantial claim

  • Probably not a substantial claim: may not pass S3 (load-bearing).

    Premisecitation

    The timescales on which decoherence occurs in the environment of the brain are considerably shorter than neural firing rates.

    “As initially calculated by Max Tegmark in response to Orch OR theory, the timescales on which decoherence occurs in the environment of the brain are considerably shorter than neural firing rates 47 .”
    Quote in the paperNot a substantial claim0 of 1 sources checked
    • cites [47] 2015, Proc. Natl. Acad. Sci. source

      Not checked in the free run.

  • Probably not a substantial claim: may not pass S3 (load-bearing).

    Premisecitation

    The field of neurophysics already attests that the study of the brain borrows from ideas across the spectrum of physics: electricity and magnetism, mechanics, thermodynamics, optics.

    “The field of neurophysics already attests to the fact that the study of the brain borrows from ideas across the spectrum of physics: electricity and magnetism, mechanics, thermo-dynamics, optics 15 .”
    Quote in the paperNot a substantial claim0 of 1 sources checked
    • cites [15] 2005, J. Comp. Physiol., A source

      Not checked in the free run.

  • Probably not a substantial claim: may not pass S3 (load-bearing).

    Premisecitation

    A leading theory of bird migration suggests that birds utilise the earth's magnetic field as a guiding tool by means of the radical pair mechanism.

    “A leading theory of bird migration suggests that birds utilise the earth's magnetic field as a guiding tool by means of the radical pair mechanism [159][160][161] .”
    Quote in the paperNot a substantial claim0 of 3 sources checked
    • cites [159] 2017, Sci. Rep. source

      Not checked in the free run.

    • cites [160] 2017, J. Phys. Chem. B source

      Not checked in the free run.

    • cites [161] 2017, J. Phys. Chem. B source

      Not checked in the free run.

  • Probably not a substantial claim: may not pass S3 (load-bearing).

    Premisecitation

    Graphene quantum dots have been shown to prevent and even undo the protein clumping of neurons in the brain that leads to Parkinson's disease.

    “Even more recently, graphene quantum dots have been shown to prevent and even undo the protein clumping of neurons in the brain that leads to Parkinson's disease 211 .”
    Quote in the paperNot a substantial claim0 of 1 sources checked
    • cites [211] 2012, Proc. Biol. Sci. source

      Not checked in the free run.

  • Probably not a substantial claim: may not pass S3 (load-bearing).

    Interpretationnone given

    The theory of entangled neural processes has caught the interest of researchers working in the field of quantum information theory.

    “While the results of experiments to verify this model of entangled neural processes are yet to be completed the theory has caught the interest of researchers working in the field of quantum information theory.”
    Quote in the paperNot a substantial claim

  • Probably not a substantial claim: may not pass S3 (load-bearing).

    Premisecitation

    Quantum dots have also been used to model the mechanism by which anti-acetylcholine receptor antibodies contribute to the neuromuscular disorder myasthenia gravis.

    “They have also been used to model the mechanism by which anti-acetylcholine receptor antibodies contribute to the neuromuscular disorder myasthenia gravis 210 .”
    Quote in the paperNot a substantial claim0 of 1 sources checked
    • cites [210] 2018, EBioMedicine source

      Not checked in the free run.

  • Probably not a substantial claim: may not pass S3 (load-bearing).

    Premisecitation

    Research suggests that the arrangement of chromophores in bacteria allows for quantum coherence in their photosynthetic processes.

    “Research suggests that the arrangement of chromophores in bacteria allows for quantum coherence in their photosynthetic processes 142 .”
    Quote in the paperNot a substantial claim0 of 1 sources checked
    • cites [142] 2014, PLoS One source

      Not checked in the free run.

  • Probably not a substantial claim: may not pass S3 (load-bearing).

    Premisecitation

    There is some evidence that lithium, used to alleviate the symptoms of bipolar disorder, has isotope dependent effects on the behaviour of rats.

    “There is some evidence that lithium, used to alleviate the symptoms of bipolar disorder, has isotope dependent effects on the behaviour of rats 84,203 .”
    Quote in the paperNot a substantial claim0 of 2 sources checked
    • cites [84] 2012, Anesthesiology source

      Not checked in the free run.

    • cites [203] 2017, Chron. Pharm. Sci.

      Not checked in the free run.

  • Probably not a substantial claim: may not pass S3 (load-bearing).

    Premisecitation

    A separate study demonstrated similar results for Alzheimer's disease.

    “A separate study study demonstrated similar results for Alzheimer's disease 212 .”
    Quote in the paperNot a substantial claim0 of 1 sources checked
    • cites [212] 1994, Br. J. Psychiatry source

      Not checked in the free run.

  • Probably not a substantial claim: may not pass S3 (load-bearing), S4 (based). May combine two claims.

    Interpretationnone given

    Fisher's Posner qubits depend on nuclear spin, unlike the radical pair model developed with respect to avian migration, their entangled spin dynamics mediate the outcome of signalling processes in a potentially analogous fashion.

    “And while Fisher's Posner qubits depend on nuclear spin, unlike the radical pair model developed with respect to avian migration, their entangled spin dynamics mediate the outcome of signalling processes in a potentially analogous fashion.”
    Quote in the paperNot a substantial claim

  • May combine two claims.

    Premisecitation

    The coherence time is still very short for solvated phosphates, approximately one second, due to the fact that hydrogen quickly binds to phosphate and the non-zero proton spin contributes to decoherence.

    “Despite this the coherence time is still very short for solvated phosphates, approximately one second, due to the fact that hydrogen quickly binds to phosphate and the non-zero proton spin contributes to decoherence.”
    Quote in the paperSubstantial claim0 of 1 sources checked
    • cites [84] 2012, Anesthesiology source

      Not checked in the free run.

  • Classified as probably not a substantial claim.

    Interpretationcitation

    There is still some uncertainty as to whether Posner molecules are present in vivo.

    “Whereas free-floating calcium phosphate clusters resembling Posner molecules have been found to be stable in simulated body fluids 202 , there is still some uncertainty as to whether they are present in vivo 84,85 .”
    Quote in the paperSubstantial claim0 of 2 sources checked
    • cites [84] 2012, Anesthesiology source

      Not checked in the free run.

    • cites [85] 1970, J. Theor. Biol. source

      Not checked in the free run.

38 of 38

  • The paper relies on this without support.

    The potency of anaesthetics is linked to their increased lipid solubility (Meyer-Overton rule).

    “The Meyer-Overton rule links the potency of anaesthetics to their increased lipid solubility.”

  • The paper relies on this without support.

    The molecules that comprise the group of general anaesthetics range from structurally simple noble gas xenon to complex alfaxalone without any apparent similarities.

    “The molecules that comprise the group of general anaesthetics range from the structurally simple noble gas xenon to the much more complex molecule alfaxalone, a range that includes numerous other chemicals without any apparent similarities.”

  • The paper relies on this without support.

    Out of the various elements and ions that play an essential role in biological systems, only hydrogen and phosphorus have spin-half nuclei.

    “Out of the various elements and ions that play an essential role in biological systems, only hydrogen and phosphorus have spin-half nuclei.”
3 of 3

Claims other papers make about this one

Each is checked against this paper’s own text: does it say what the citing paper says it does?

Self-check

Percentages, sums and reported differences re-computed from the paper’s own numbers.

Each contradiction between two passages listed here was confirmed by an independent check.

  • Fisher's shortest coherence estimate is described inconsistently

    Minor

    The text calls Fisher's shortest estimate approximately a day, but earlier gives one of his estimates as hours, which is shorter than a day.

1 of 1

Cites

Flagged first, then by citations

Research works printed but not linked: 17

  1. Mohseni, 2013, Quantum Effects in Biology
  2. 2009, Quantum Mechanics Concepts and Applications
  3. 1987, Atomic and Quantum Physics
  4. 2004, The Central Nervous System: Structure and Function
  5. 2000, Molecular Cell Biology
  6. 2013, Neuroimaging of Consciousness
  7. 2018, Beyond Weird: Why Everything You Thought You Knew about Quantum Physics is Different
  8. 1985, Microtubules
  9. 1982, Physiol. Chem. Phys., 14, 183
  10. 1997, Pharmacol. Rev., 49, 343
  11. 2017, J. Mol. Med. Clin. Appl., 2, 1
  12. 1973, Biofizika, 18, 1037
  13. 1981, Photobiochem. Photobiophys., 2, 263
  14. 2017, Chron. Pharm. Sci., 1, 332
  15. 2010, Fam. Physician, 39, 307
  16. 1998, Biofizika, 43, 844
  17. 2016, Biology of Life: Biochemistry, Physiology and Philosophy

Cited by

Sorted by citations

Related

Authors
Adams, B., & Petruccione, F.
Affiliations
National Institute for Theoretical Physics (ZA)
ORCID
Venue
AVS Quantum Science
Publisher
American Vacuum Society
Published
2020-04-01
Volume
2
Issue
2
ISSN
2639-0213 (ISSN-L)
DOI
10.1116/1.5135170
OpenAlex
W2980693044
Cited by
80
References
222
Citations by year
2026: 11 · 2025: 12 · 2024: 12 · 2023: 11 · 2022: 14 · 2021: 14 · 2020: 6
FWCI
1.43
Type
journal article
Language
en
Open access
Locations
  • AVS Quantum Science (publishedVersion)
  • arXiv (Cornell University) (submittedVersion)
  • arXiv (Cornell University)
Funders
National Research Foundation (UID64812)
Topics
  • Health Sciences › Medicine › Physiology › Biofield Effects and Biophysics
  • Social Sciences › Psychology › Experimental and Cognitive Psychology › Philosophy and Theoretical Science
  • Physical Sciences › Physics and Astronomy › Atomic and Molecular Physics, and Optics › Quantum Mechanics and Applications
Keywords
quantum consciousness, microtubules, quantum biology, photosynthesis, bird migration, olfaction, quantum cognition, general anesthesia, electron spin, neurotransmitters, quantum entanglement, neural processing, consciousness

About these checks

Registry, retraction, Cites and statistics results are computed, not judged, with one exception: a printed reference that no index lists is read once by a model before it counts as a citation error. Claims are extracted by a model and kept only when their quote appears verbatim in the text; each cited source is then checked, with a model’s help, for whether it says what the claim relies on. Those verdicts can be wrong — read the claim’s quote and the cited source before relying on one.

Claims read by deepseek-v4.1-flash under definition version 3 (extract-v3) on 2026-10-10.

Classified by jev-1.13-20260917 (gold-guideline-v0.2) on 2026-10-10.

Statistics and arithmetic are recomputed, not judged.

Confidence bands are shown only for fields calibrated on our annotated test set. None is calibrated yet, so no band is shown.

What counts as a claim ›How we measure confidence ›How we check this ›

Are you an author, or do you see a problem with this page? Request a review