The future of quantum biology
Open accessAbstract
Biological systems are dynamical, constantly exchanging energy and matter with the environment in order to maintain the non-equilibrium state synonymous with living. Developments in observational techniques have allowed us to study biological dynamics on increasingly small scales. Such studies have revealed evidence of quantum mechanical effects, which cannot be accounted for by classical physics, in a range of biological processes. Quantum biology is the study of such processes, and here we provide an outline of the current state of the field, as well as insights into future directions.
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TL;DR
This perspective reviews quantum biology, surveying evidence for quantum effects in photosynthesis, enzyme catalysis, magnetoreception, olfaction, cognition and origins-of-life research, and outlining future directions. It argues that the field should focus on biological processes where quantum and classical models differ and on engineering bioinspired quantum technologies, while acknowledging unresolved debate over the functional role of coherence.
Key findings
- In photosynthesis, the primary light-harvesting stage proceeds with near-perfect quantum efficiency, though overall sunlight-to-biomass conversion is at best a few per cent. The 2007 FMO study reported coherences lasting 660 fs, but later 2D-ES work found long-lived coherences mainly from ground-state vibrations, with electronic coherences decaying within 60–240 fs; excited-state vibronic coherence was also found.
- Charge separation in photosynthesis approaches unity quantum efficiency; 2D-ES on the Photosystem II reaction centre revealed long-lived cross-peak oscillations interpreted as electronic coherences between excitons and exciton–charge-transfer states, and simulations reproduced them quantitatively with vibronic states, with specific vibrational modes assisting resonant transfer.
- For avian magnetoreception, the radical pair mechanism is well established, and Cry4 evidence includes constant expression, double-cone localization, and upregulation during migration; garden warbler cryptochromes form radicals with millisecond lifetimes under blue light. Olfaction evidence includes deuterium substitution changing odour despite identical shape and fruit flies responding similarly to molecules with similar vibrational frequencies despite unrelated chemistry.
- The review also discusses quantum tunnelling in enzyme catalysis, proton-coupled electron transfer, proposed quantum effects in cognition (e.g., Tegmark’s estimate that decoherence times for ions in action potentials are 10–20 orders of magnitude smaller than neural dynamics; Fisher’s Posner-molecule proposal; anaesthetic-induced electron spin changes in Drosophila), and open quantum systems approaches to prebiotic chemistry.
Methods
- Design: perspective/review article, not a primary study; it synthesizes literature and discussions from the Future of Quantum Biology Workshop in South Africa in December 2014.
- Data/analysis: no new data; the article states it has no additional data. It surveys experimental and theoretical work across photosynthesis, enzyme catalysis, sensing, cognition, origins of life, and complexity.
Limitations
- The paper states no formal limitations section and reports no additional data; it is a perspective/review rather than a systematic or primary investigation.
- The text makes evident ongoing controversy: oscillatory dynamics alone cannot rule out classical descriptions, quantum modelling of environment-assisted transport in photosynthesis has been controversial, and whether the avian compass is truly quantum or semiclassical remains doubted.
- The text also notes unresolved issues: the role of excited-state vibronic coherence in excitation energy transfer remains to be determined; single-molecule quantum investigations are highly challenging due to ultrafast time resolution and high photon-counting requirements; and how nanoscale quantum effects provide organismal selective advantage is an open question.
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- Premisecitation
Evidence of quantum mechanical effects that cannot be accounted for by classical physics has been found in a range of biological processes.
“Such studies have revealed evidence of quantum mechanical effects, which cannot be accounted for by classical physics, in a range of biological processes.”
Quote in the paperSubstantial claim0 of 1 sources checked- cites [3] source
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- Premisecitation
In 2009, similar oscillatory signals were revealed for the main light-harvesting complex of higher plants (LHCII) and were interpreted as quantum-coherent energy transfer.
“In 2009, similar oscillatory signals were revealed for the main light-harvesting complex of higher plants (LHCII) and were interpreted as quantum-coherent energy transfer [43].”
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- Premisenone given
In photosynthesis, respiration and vision, the models developed in the past are fundamentally quantum mechanical.
“In photosynthesis, respiration and vision, the models that have been developed in the past are fundamentally quantum mechanical.”
Quote in the paperNot a substantial claim - Premisecitation
With the advent of femtosecond transient absorption spectroscopy in the early 1990s, long-lived vibrational coherences, lasting on the order of a picosecond, were detected for bacterial and plant light-harvesting complexes.
“With the advent of femtosecond transient absorption spectroscopy in the early 1990s, long-lived vibrational coherences, lasting on the order of a picosecond, were detected for bacterial and plant light-harvesting complexes [35 -40].”
Quote in the paperNot a substantial claim0 of 6 sources checked - Interpretationreasoning
Under optimal conditions (low light intensities and no stress), for almost every photon absorbed and transferred by the light-harvesting antennae, an electron is transferred within the photosynthetic reaction centre.
“This means that under optimal conditions (low light intensities and no stress) for almost every photon absorbed and transferred by the light-harvesting antennae, an electron is transferred within the photosynthetic reaction centre.”
Quote in the paperNot a substantial claim
- Premisecitation
The first 2D-ES study on the FMO complex of green sulfur bacteria, published in 2007 by the Fleming group, revealed that particular coherences lasted surprisingly long (660 fs).
“The first such study, which was conducted on the Fenna-Matthews-Olson (FMO) complex of green sulfur bacteria and published in 2007 by the Fleming group, revealed that particular coherences lasted surprisingly long (660 fs) [3].”
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- Premisecitation
The reported detection of remarkably long-lived (660 fs and longer) electronic quantum coherence during excitation energy transfer in a photosynthetic system revived interest in the role of non-trivial quantum mechanics to explain fundamental life processes.
“The reported detection of the remarkably long-lived (660 fs and longer) electronic quantum coherence during excitation energy transfer in a photosynthetic system revived interest in the role of 'non-trivial' quantum mechanics to explain the fundamental life processes of living organisms [3].”
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- Premisecitation
Two-dimensional electronic spectroscopy has revealed cross peaks that oscillated in time in light-harvesting complexes.
“The two-dimensional spectra revealed the presence of cross peaks [41] that oscillated in time [42].”
Quote in the paperSubstantial claim0 of 2 sources checked - Premisenone given
Averaging the rate of transfer over a large and quasi-continuous distribution of final states makes the calculated dynamics no longer display coherences and interference phenomena.
“As a consequence of averaging the rate of transfer over a large and quasi-continuous distribution of final states the calculated dynamics no longer display coherences and interference phenomena.”
Quote in the paperNot a substantial claim - Premisecitation
In 2010, independently by the Engel and Scholes groups, similar coherent oscillations were detected at physiological temperatures in FMO and light-harvesting complexes of two species of marine cryptophyte algae.
“An important development was the detection in 2010, independently by the Engel [44] and Scholes [45] groups, of similar coherent oscillations at physiological temperatures in FMO and light-harvesting complexes of two species of marine cryptophyte algae, respectively.”
Quote in the paperNot a substantial claim0 of 2 sources checked - Premisecitation
Contrary to the intuition that noise will reduce the performance of a system, interaction with an environment can result in increased transport efficiency.
“Contrary to the intuition that noise will reduce the performance of a system, it has been found that interaction with an environment can result in increased transport efficiency [19,20].”
Quote in the paperSubstantial claim0 of 2 sources checked - Interpretationreasoning
Processes necessary for the overall function and survival of the organism seem to rely on dynamical quantum-mechanical effects at the intermolecular scale.
“While quantum effects are difficult to observe on macroscopic time and length scales, processes necessary for the overall function and therefore survival of the organism seem to rely on dynamical quantum-mechanical effects at the intermolecular scale.”
Quote in the paperNot a substantial claim - Premisecitation
Excitons in quantum biologically inspired design are responsible for faster energy transfer.
“An important principle in quantum biologically inspired design is the presence of excitons: they are responsible for more efficient light absorption, faster energy funnelling (i.e.faster decay along the energy gradient), faster energy transfer and more efficient (irreversible) trapping of excitations by the reaction centre [75].”
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- Premisecitation
Counterbalancing of charge separation is essential, for example through coupled proton motion.
“Counterbalancing of charge separation is essential, e.g. through coupled proton motion [74].”
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- Premisecitation
The outcome of light-induced electron transfer has been shown to be radically altered by mode-specific infrared excitation of vibrations that are coupled to the electron transfer pathway.
“The outcome of light-induced electron transfer has also been shown to be radically altered by mode-specific infrared excitation of vibrations that are coupled to the electron transfer pathway [59].”
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- Premisecitation
More recent work has shown unambiguously that the non-classical properties of environmental vibrational motions may assist excitation energy transfer in photosynthetic LHCs on the sub-picosecond time scale and at room temperature.
“However, more recent work [52] has shown unambiguously that the non-classical properties of environmental vibrational motions may assist excitation energy transfer in photosynthetic LHCs on the sub-picosecond time scale and at room temperature.”
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- Interpretationreasoning
While non-trivial quantum effects may appear hidden on a macroscopic level, they seem to contribute fundamentally to the biological machinery of charge separation.
“Therefore, while non-trivial quantum effects may appear hidden on a macroscopic level, they seem to contribute fundamentally to the biological machinery of charge separation.”
Quote in the paperSubstantial claim - Premisecitation
Static disorder also strongly affects the fate of an excitation in a light-harvesting complex by changing the probability of the excitation to be trapped in an energy sink or by pigment clusters that are not neighbouring other complexes in the photosystem.
“Static disorder also strongly affects the fate of an excitation in a light-harvesting complex by changing the probability of the excitation to be trapped in an energy sink [63,64] or by pigment clusters that are not neighbouring other complexes in the photosystem [65].”
Quote in the paperNot a substantial claim0 of 3 sources checked - Premisecitation
Very recent 2D-ES studies on the FMO complex have shown unambiguously that long-lived coherences originate mainly from ground state vibrations and not from exciton-exciton superpositions.
“After much theoretical evidence both for and against long-lived (up to a few picoseconds) electronic coherence, very recent 2D-ES studies on the FMO complex have shown unambiguously that these long-lived coherences originate mainly from ground state vibrations and not from exciton -exciton superpositions [47,48].”
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Nonclassicality of initially thermalized vibrations has been shown to be induced via coherent exciton-vibration interactions and unambiguously indicated by negativities in the phase-space quasi-probability distribution of the effective collective mode coupled to the electronic dynamics, even with incoherent input of excitation.
“The nonclassicality of initially thermalized vibrations has been shown to be induced via coherent exciton-vibration interactions and unambiguously indicated by negativities in the phase-space quasi-probability distribution of the effective collective mode coupled to the electronic dynamics, even with incoherent input of excitation.”
Quote in the paperSubstantial claim - Premisecitation
Strong correlation was observed between the degree of coherence and efficient and ultrafast charge separation.
“Strong correlation was observed between the degree of coherence and efficient and ultrafast charge separation [56].”
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- Premisecitation
The experimental results were reproduced quantitatively by a quantum coherent model featuring new energy transfer pathways that do not appear classically between a plethora of vibronic states.
“The experimental results were reproduced quantitatively by a quantum coherent model featuring new energy transfer pathways that do not appear classically between a plethora of vibronic states [56][57][58].”
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- Premisecitation
Excitons in quantum biologically inspired design are responsible for more efficient irreversible trapping of excitations by the reaction centre.
“An important principle in quantum biologically inspired design is the presence of excitons: they are responsible for more efficient light absorption, faster energy funnelling (i.e.faster decay along the energy gradient), faster energy transfer and more efficient (irreversible) trapping of excitations by the reaction centre [75].”
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- Interpretationnone given
Results of 2D-ES suggest an intimate role of the environment in the form of molecular vibrations on quantum coherent energy and electron transfer processes.
“Results of 2D-ES suggest an intimate role of the environment in the form of molecular vibrations on quantum coherent energy and electron transfer processes.”
Quote in the paperSubstantial claim - Premisecitation
In 1966, DeVault and Chance observed a temperature dependence of the electron transfer in purple bacterial reaction centres that could not be accounted for by classical physics.
“In 1966, DeVault and Chance observed a temperature dependence of the electron transfer in purple bacterial reaction centres that could not be accounted for by classical physics [53].”
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- Premisecitation
Excitons in quantum biologically inspired design are responsible for faster energy funnelling, i.e. faster decay along the energy gradient.
“An important principle in quantum biologically inspired design is the presence of excitons: they are responsible for more efficient light absorption, faster energy funnelling (i.e.faster decay along the energy gradient), faster energy transfer and more efficient (irreversible) trapping of excitations by the reaction centre [75].”
Quote in the paperNot a substantial claim0 of 1 sources checked- cites [75] source
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- Premisecitation
Excitons in quantum biologically inspired design are responsible for more efficient light absorption.
“An important principle in quantum biologically inspired design is the presence of excitons: they are responsible for more efficient light absorption, faster energy funnelling (i.e.faster decay along the energy gradient), faster energy transfer and more efficient (irreversible) trapping of excitations by the reaction centre [75].”
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- Premisecitation
Ultrafast photoinduced electron transfer reactions are so quick that during the electron transfer from the donor to the acceptor complete vibrational relaxation does not occur.
“Ultrafast photoinduced electron transfer reactions are so quick that during the electron transfer from the donor to the acceptor complete vibrational relaxation does not occur.”
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- Premisecitation
Experimental confirmation of excited-state vibronic coherence was also found.
“However, experimental confirmation of excited-state vibronic coherence was also found [48] and its role in excitation energy transfer in photosynthesis remains to be determined.”
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- Premisereasoning
Owing to heterogeneity, generally termed static disorder, which originates from relatively slow protein conformational dynamic fluctuations, the decay of oscillations of spectral features is strongly affected by ensemble averaging.
“Owing to this heterogeneity, generally termed 'static disorder', which originates from relatively slow protein conformational dynamic fluctuations, the decay of oscillations of spectral features is strongly affected by ensemble averaging.”
Quote in the paperSubstantial claim - Premisecitation
Proton-coupled electron transfer mechanisms have been shown to underlie the activation of most substrate bonds at enzyme-active sites.
“In biological energy storage, the importance of proton translocation driven by electron transfer was first noted in 1961 [89], and since then, proton-coupled electron transfer mechanisms [90] have been shown to underlie amino acid radical generation and transport [91] along with the activation of most substrate bonds at enzyme-active sites [92].”
Quote in the paperNot a substantial claim0 of 2 sources checked - Interpretationreasoning
The overwhelming majority of organic photovoltaic devices extract far fewer charges from the electrodes than are generated by incoming light, leading to low power conversion efficiencies.
“The overwhelming majority of devices consequently extract far fewer charges from the electrodes than are generated by the incoming light, leading to low power conversion efficiencies.”
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There is evidence that in plants, weak magnetic fields enhance cryptochrome responses.
“There is evidence that in plants, weak magnetic fields enhance cryptochrome responses [100].”
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- Premisecitation
Proton-coupled electron transfer mechanisms have been shown to underlie amino acid radical generation and transport.
“In biological energy storage, the importance of proton translocation driven by electron transfer was first noted in 1961 [89], and since then, proton-coupled electron transfer mechanisms [90] have been shown to underlie amino acid radical generation and transport [91] along with the activation of most substrate bonds at enzyme-active sites [92].”
Quote in the paperNot a substantial claim0 of 2 sources checked - Premisecitation
Enzymes often rely on the coupling of electrons and protons to control charge transport and catalysis.
“Enzymes often rely on the coupling of electrons and protons to control charge transport and catalysis [87].”
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- Premisecitation
Standard models for describing quantum tunnelling have been shown to explain experimental enzyme data, so long as one accounts for the fact that enzymes have many possible different structures.
“Standard models for describing quantum tunnelling have been shown to explain experimental enzyme data, so long as one accounts for the fact that enzymes have many possible different structures [88].”
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- Premisecitation
That cryptochromes might mediate magnetic responses in animals has been documented for the case of fruit flies.
“That cryptochromes might mediate magnetic responses in animals has also been documented for the case of fruit flies [101,102].”
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Investigations of primary charge transfer in a prototypical artificial reaction centre have revealed correlated wave-like motion of electrons and nuclei on a time scale of a few tens of femtoseconds as a driving mechanism of the photoinduced current generation cycle.
“Investigations of primary charge transfer in a prototypical artificial reaction centre have revealed correlated wave-like motion of electrons and nuclei on a time scale of a few tens of femtoseconds as a driving mechanism of the photoinduced current generation cycle [76].”
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- Premisereasoning
Because the Coulomb interaction is long-ranged and organic materials have low dielectric constants, the electron and hole in organic photovoltaics experience a binding energy 10 times deeper than kBT at room temperature even after dissociating onto different molecules on either side of the interface.
“However, since the Coulomb interaction is longranged, and organic materials have low dielectric constants, the electron and hole experience a binding energy 10 times deeper than k B T at room temperature, even after they have dissociated onto different molecules on either side of the interface.”
Quote in the paperSubstantial claim - Premisecitation
A number of theoretical groups working on organic photovoltaics now apply an open-quantum systems approach, using methods strongly influenced by early studies of photosynthetic light-harvesting complexes.
“A number of theoretical groups working on organic photovoltaics now apply an open-quantum systems approach, using methods strongly influenced by early studies of photosynthetic light-harvesting complexes [83 -86].”
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Charges moving in organic semiconductors experience all three key properties of pigment-protein complexes: high disorder, molecular fluctuations and reorganization.
“Crucially, charges moving in organic semiconductors experience all three key properties of pigment-protein complexes listed above: high disorder, molecular fluctuations and reorganization.”
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Hydrogen cyanide oligomers may have played a significant role in the synthesis of a wide range of prebiotic molecules.
“For example, hydrogen cyanide (HCN) oligomers may have played a significant role in the synthesis of a wide range of prebiotic molecules [122-126], and recently, dimeric forms of HCN (cyanomethanimine) [127] have been detected in the interstellar medium.”
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Interstellar gas-phase production routes are incapable of producing significant amounts of HCN, in spite of its detection.
“However, it has been found that interstellar gas-phase production routes are incapable of producing significant amounts of HCN [128,129], in spite of its detection.”
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Dimeric forms of HCN (cyanomethanimine) have been detected in the interstellar medium.
“For example, hydrogen cyanide (HCN) oligomers may have played a significant role in the synthesis of a wide range of prebiotic molecules [122-126], and recently, dimeric forms of HCN (cyanomethanimine) [127] have been detected in the interstellar medium.”
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- Premisecitation
Four different types of cryptochrome have been confirmed in the eyes of migratory birds.
“It seems a logical next step to more complex living creatures, especially since four different types of cryptochrome have been confirmed in the eyes of migratory birds [103] and cryptochromes from the migratory garden warbler form radicals with millisecond lifetimes under the influence of the blue spectral range [104].”
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- Premisecitation
The double-cone localization of Cry4 and its upregulation during migration periods of migratory birds but not in chickens is further confirmation that the molecule is viable as a magnetoreceptor.
“The double-cone localization of Cry4 as well as the fact that it is upregulated during the migration periods of migratory birds but not in chickens, is further confirmation that the molecule is viable as a magnetoreceptor [106].”
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- Premisecitation
Molecules with similar vibrational frequencies have been observed to elicit similar reactions from fruit flies in spite of being unrelated chemically.
“Furthermore, molecules with similar vibrational frequencies have been observed to elicit similar reactions from fruit flies in spite of being unrelated chemically [111].”
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- Premisecitation
Experiments with fruit flies have indicated that shape and size of odourants are insufficient for detection.
“In support of the theory, experiments with fruit flies have indicated that shape and size of odourants are insufficient for detection.”
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- Premisecitation
The physical viability and efficiency of the proposed inelastic electron tunnelling mechanism using a simple but general theoretical model was shown in 2007.
“The physical viability and efficiency of the proposed mechanism using a simple but general theoretical model was shown in 2007 [112].”
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- Premisecitation
Cryptochromes from the migratory garden warbler form radicals with millisecond lifetimes under the influence of the blue spectral range.
“It seems a logical next step to more complex living creatures, especially since four different types of cryptochrome have been confirmed in the eyes of migratory birds [103] and cryptochromes from the migratory garden warbler form radicals with millisecond lifetimes under the influence of the blue spectral range [104].”
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- Premisecitation
Two studies have offered strong evidence for one of the four cryptochromes, Cry4, playing a role in the avian compass.
“More recently, two studies have offered strong evidence for one of these four cryptochromes, Cry4, playing a role in the avian compass.”
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The constancy of Cry4 expression is necessary for efficient navigation.
“Cry4 is expressed at a constant level rather than a cyclical pattern; this constancy is necessary for efficient navigation [105].”
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- Premisecitation
Max Tegmark estimates decoherence time scales for ions involved in the propagation of action potentials to be 10 to 20 orders of magnitude smaller than relevant time scales of neural dynamics.
“However, a crucial point has been made by Max Tegmark [118] who estimates decoherence time scales for ions involved in the propagation of action potentials to be 10 to 20 orders of magnitude smaller than relevant time scales of neural dynamics.”
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- Premisecitation
Substitution with deuterium of hydrogen results in an odour change despite the fact that the two molecules have the same shape.
“For example, the substitution with deuterium of hydrogen results in an odour change despite the fact that the two molecules have the same shape (figure 4) [111].”
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- Interpretationcitation
Quantum coherence of the ions involved in neural dynamics would be destroyed long before macroscopic dynamics could be influenced.
“In other words, quantum coherence of the ions involved in neural dynamics would be destroyed long before macroscopic dynamics could be influenced.”
Quote in the paperSubstantial claim - Interpretationreasoning
Nature cannot select against the quantum-mechanical nature of chemistry.
“It is important to note that nature cannot select against the quantum-mechanical nature of chemistry.”
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In 1996, the vibrational theory of olfaction was revived through the proposal that protein-coupled receptors measure molecular vibrations using inelastic electron tunnelling rather than responding to molecular keys fitting molecular locks by shape alone.
“In 1996, the theory was revived through the proposal that protein-coupled receptors are measuring molecular vibrations using inelastic electron tunnelling rather than responding to molecular keys fitting molecular locks, working by shape alone [110].”
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- Premisenone given
Standard computational quantum chemistry cannot account for the variety and richness of chemistry occurring in the interstellar medium.
“However, standard computational quantum chemistry cannot account for the variety and richness of chemistry occurring in the interstellar medium.”
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The results of selection are mediated through genetic processes that can affect biological subsystems only down to a certain scale, and the physical details of what happens below that scale are immune to biological selection.
“The results of selection are mediated through genetic processes that can affect biological subsystems only down to a certain scale, and the physical details of what happens below that scale are immune to biological selection.”
Quote in the paperSubstantial claim - Premisecitation
Cry4 is expressed at a constant level rather than a cyclical pattern.
“Cry4 is expressed at a constant level rather than a cyclical pattern; this constancy is necessary for efficient navigation [105].”
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- Premisecitation
Experiments with fruit flies have indicated that substituting hydrogen with deuterium results in an odour change despite the molecules having the same shape.
“experiments with fruit flies have indicated that the substitution of hydrogen with deuterium results in an odour change in spite of their having the same shape.”
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- Interpretationcitation
Vibrational frequency might play a role in the detection of odourants.
“This suggests that vibrational frequency might play a role in the detection of odourants[111].”
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- May combine two claims. 38
- Classified as probably not a substantial claim. 33
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InterpretationcitationQuantum biology promises to give rise to design principles for biologically inspired quantum nanotechnologies, with the ability to perform efficiently at a fundamental level in noisy environments at room temperature and even make use of these noisy environments to preserve or even enhance the quantum properties.
“More immediately, quantum biology promises to give rise to design principles for biologically inspired quantum nanotechnologies, with the ability to perform efficiently at a fundamental level in noisy environments at room temperature and even make use of these 'noisy environments' to preserve or even enhance the quantum properties [19,20].”
Quote in the paperNot a substantial claim0 of 2 sources checkedProbably not a substantial claim: may not pass S3 (load-bearing), S4 (based). May combine two claims.
Premisenone givenIt is well-established that the primary photosynthetic processes of energy and charge transfer exhibit essential quantum mechanical properties, such as delocalization, wavepackets, coherence and superradiance, and that classical models do not accurately describe the ensuing dynamics.
“It is wellestablished that the primary photosynthetic processes of energy and charge transfer exhibit essential quantum mechanical properties, such as delocalization, wavepackets, coherence and superradiance, and that classical models do not accurately describe the ensuing dynamics.”
Quote in the paperNot a substantial claimProbably not a substantial claim: may not pass S3 (load-bearing), S4 (based).
Interpretationnone givenThe study of biological processes operating efficiently at the boundary between the realms of quantum and classical physics is already contributing to improved physical descriptions of this quantum-to-classical transition.
“The study of biological processes operating efficiently at the boundary between the realms of quantum and classical physics is already contributing to improved physical descriptions of this quantum-to-classical transition.”
Quote in the paperNot a substantial claimMay combine two claims.
PremisecitationThe dynamics described by the past quantum mechanical models of photosynthesis, respiration and vision are often exponential and follow from the application of Fermi's Golden Rule.
“The dynamics described by these models are often 'exponential' and follow from the application of Fermi's Golden Rule [1,2].”
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PremisecitationA large number of studies associated the cross peaks with couplings between exciton states, while their oscillations were assigned to electronic quantum coherence, i.e. coherent superpositions between exciton states.
“A large number of studies associated the cross peaks with couplings between exciton states, while their oscillations were assigned to electronic quantum coherence, i.e. coherent superpositions between exciton states [42].”
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Premisenone givenExcitation energy transfer and charge transfer in photosynthesis are the most well-established areas of quantum biology, and a more recent area of investigation is the study of enzyme catalysis.
“Excitation energy transfer and charge transfer in photosynthesis are the most well-established areas of quantum biology, and a more recent area of investigation is the study of enzyme catalysis, which often relies on the coupling of electrons and protons to control the transport of multiple charges.”
Quote in the paperNot a substantial claimProbably not a substantial claim: may not pass S3 (load-bearing).
PremisereasoningQuantum coherence at physiological temperatures is generally observed to be fragile compared to that at cryogenic temperatures, since environmental noise increases with increasing temperature, leading to shorter decoherence times.
“Generally, quantum coherence at physiological temperatures is observed to be fragile compared to that at cryogenic temperatures, since the environmental noise increases with increasing temperature, leading to shorter decoherence times.”
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PremisecitationDevelopments in experimental techniques such as ultrafast spectroscopy, single molecule spectroscopy, time-resolved microscopy and single particle imaging have enabled study of biological dynamics on increasingly small length and time scales, revealing processes necessary for living function that depend on a delicate interplay between quantum and classical physical effects.
“Recently, developments in experimental techniques such as ultrafast spectroscopy [6], single molecule spectroscopy [7 -11], timeresolved microscopy [12 -14] and single particle imaging [15 -18] have enabled us to study biological dynamics on increasingly small length and time scales, revealing a variety of processes necessary for the function of the living system that depend on a delicate interpl”
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- cites [10] source
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- cites [11] source
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- cites [12] source
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- cites [13] source
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- cites [14] source
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Probably not a substantial claim: may not pass S4 (based).
Premisenone givenThere exist processes in biological organisms for which it is currently thought that a quantum mechanical description is necessary to fully characterize the behaviour of the relevant subsystem.
“As we investigate biological systems on nanoscales and larger, we find that there exist processes in biological organisms, detailed in this article, for which it is currently thought that a quantum mechanical description is necessary to fully characterize the behaviour of the relevant subsystem.”
Quote in the paperNot a substantial claimProbably not a substantial claim: may not pass S3 (load-bearing), S4 (based).
Premisenone givenIn photosynthetic reaction centres and light-harvesting complexes, oscillatory phenomena were observed in numerous studies performed in the 1990s and were typically ascribed to the formation of vibrational or mixed electronic-vibrational wavepackets.
“In photosynthetic reaction centres and light-harvesting complexes, oscillatory phenomena were observed in numerous studies performed in the 1990s and were typically ascribed to the formation of vibrational or mixed electronic-vibrational wavepackets.”
Quote in the paperNot a substantial claimProbably not a substantial claim: may not pass S3 (load-bearing), S4 (based).
Premisenone givenThe primary light-harvesting stage of photosynthesis proceeds with near-perfect quantum efficiency.
“However, the primary light-harvesting stage of photosynthesis proceeds with near-perfect quantum efficiency.”
Quote in the paperNot a substantial claimProbably not a substantial claim: may not pass S3 (load-bearing), S4 (based).
Premisenone givenPerforming such investigations on the single molecule level is highly challenging due to the requirements for both ultrafast (femtosecond to nanosecond) time resolution and high photon counting rates.
“However, performing such investigations on the single molecule level is highly challenging due to the requirements for both ultrafast (femtosecond to nanosecond) time resolution and high photon counting rates.”
Quote in the paperNot a substantial claimMay combine two claims.
InterpretationcitationExperimental and theoretical evidence shows that single vibrational modes in a statically disordered landscape very likely assist transport in both light harvesting and charge separation in photosynthetic organisms, with the pigment excitonic transitions tuned by the protein scaffold to match the energy of the vibrational mode assisting the resonant transfer.
“Hence, experimental and theoretical evidence shows that single vibrational modes in a statically disordered landscape very likely assist transport in both light harvesting and charge separation in photosynthetic organisms, with the pigment excitonic transitions tuned by the protein scaffold to match the energy of the vibrational mode assisting the resonant transfer [52,56].”
Quote in the paperSubstantial claim0 of 2 sources checkedProbably not a substantial claim: may not pass S3 (load-bearing), S4 (based). May combine two claims.
Premisenone givenThe contributing processes of charge separation happen on different time scales, from subpicoseconds to milliseconds, and involve the interplay between disorder and coherence, mediated by vibronic states.
“The contributing processes happen on different time scales, from subpicoseconds to milliseconds, and involve the interplay between disorder and coherence, mediated by vibronic states (mixtures of vibrational and excitonic states).”
Quote in the paperNot a substantial claimMay combine two claims.
Premisecitation2D-ES experiments on the reaction centre of Photosystem II of higher plants have revealed long-lived oscillations of specific cross peaks, interpreted as electronic coherences between excitons as well as between exciton and charge-transfer states.
“2D-ES experiments on the reaction centre of Photosystem II of higher plants have revealed long-lived oscillations of specific cross peaks, similarly as for light-harvesting complexes, and were interpreted as electronic coherences between excitons as well as between exciton and charge-transfer states (figure 2) [56].”
Quote in the paperSubstantial claim0 of 1 sources checked- cites [56] source
Not checked in the free run.
May combine two claims.
PremisecitationThe robustness of environmentally assisted transport with respect to variations in the system or environmental characteristics has been investigated and results show that this robustness can be exploited in the design of highly efficient quantum transport systems.
“The robustness of environmentally assisted transport with respect to variations in the system or environmental characteristics has also been investigated and results show that this robustness can be exploited in the design of highly efficient quantum transport systems [49,50].”
Quote in the paperNot a substantial claim0 of 2 sources checkedProbably not a substantial claim: may not pass S3 (load-bearing), S4 (based). May combine two claims.
Premisenone givenThe observation of oscillatory dynamics is not sufficient to rule out classical descriptions of the same behaviour, and the quantum modelling of environment-assisted transport in photosynthesis has not been without controversy.
“In general, the observation of oscillatory dynamics is not sufficient to rule out classical descriptions of the same behaviour, and the quantum modelling of environment-assisted transport in photosynthesis has not been without controversy.”
Quote in the paperNot a substantial claimProbably not a substantial claim: may not pass S3 (load-bearing), S4 (based).
Premisenone givenSince charge separation happens on the microsecond time scale, quantum effects are generally not directly visible at such a macroscopic level.
“Since charge separation happens on the microsecond time scale, quantum effects are generally not directly visible at such a macroscopic level.”
Quote in the paperNot a substantial claimProbably not a substantial claim: may not pass S2 (checkable).
InterpretationcitationInvestigation of the non-classical properties of vibrational motions assisting excitation and charge transport, photoreception and chemical sensing processes could be a touchstone for revealing a role for non-trivial quantum phenomena in biology.
“These results suggest that investigation of the non-classical properties of vibrational motions assisting excitation and charge transport, photoreception and chemical sensing processes could be a touchstone for revealing a role for non-trivial quantum phenomena in biology [52,67].”
Quote in the paperNot a substantial claim0 of 2 sources checkedProbably not a substantial claim: may not pass S3 (load-bearing), S4 (based). May combine two claims.
Premisenone givenCharge separation in photosynthesis is one of the most efficient phenomena in nature, with a quantum efficiency that approaches unity.
“Charge separation in photosynthesis is one of the most efficient phenomena in nature, with a quantum efficiency that approaches unity.”
Quote in the paperNot a substantial claimMay combine two claims.
PremisereasoningThe Jortner rate is based on the assumption that vibrational relaxation occurs on much shorter time scales than electron transfer, which is not the case for very fast transfer events.
“However, this is based on the assumption that vibrational relaxation occurs on much shorter time scales than electron transfer, which is not the case for very fast transfer events.”
Quote in the paperNot a substantial claimMay combine two claims.
PremisecitationThe simulations showed that the observed cross-peak oscillations can be maintained by specific vibrational modes, where the modes assisting the resonant transfer are primarily intrinsic to the pigment, while the pigment excitonic transitions are tuned mainly by the protein scaffold to match the energy of these modes.
“Specifically, the simulations showed that the observed cross-peak oscillations can be maintained by specific vibrational modes, where the modes assisting the resonant transfer are primarily intrinsic to the pigment, while the pigment excitonic transitions are tuned mainly by the protein scaffold to match the energy of these modes.”
Quote in the paperSubstantial claim0 of 1 sources checked- cites [56][57][58]
Not checked in the free run.
May combine two claims.
PremisecitationDeVault and Chance proposed the behaviour to show evidence of quantum mechanical tunnelling and laid the foundation for the concept of electron and nuclear tunnelling in biology.
“They proposed the behaviour to show evidence of quantum mechanical tunnelling [54], and laid the foundation for the concept of electron and nuclear tunnelling in biology [42].”
Quote in the paperNot a substantial claim0 of 2 sources checkedMay combine two claims.
PremisecitationVibrational relaxation usually occurs on a picosecond or sub-picosecond time scale, and ultrafast electron transfer reactions proceed on the same scale.
“Vibrational relaxation usually occurs on a picosecond or sub-picosecond time scale, and ultrafast electron transfer reactions proceed on the same scale [55].”
Quote in the paperSubstantial claim0 of 1 sources checked- cites [55]
Not checked in the free run.
May combine two claims.
PremisecitationThe environment changes from complex to complex as well as on relatively slow time scales (milliseconds to minutes), as suggested by the distinct, time-varying energy transfer pathways reported in studies on single light-harvesting complexes.
“This environment changes from complex to complex as well as on relatively slow time scales (milliseconds to minutes), as suggested by the distinct, time-varying energy transfer pathways reported in studies on single light-harvesting complexes [11,[60][61][62].”
Quote in the paperSubstantial claim0 of 1 sources checked- cites [11,[60][61][62]
Not checked in the free run.
May combine two claims.
PremisecitationWhile Marcus' theory of electron transfer neglects nuclear tunnelling and can therefore underestimate the electron transfer rate at low temperatures, semi-classical Marcus theory can be extended to a fully quantum-mechanical treatment based on the theory of nonradiative transitions that includes nuclear tunnelling, and which gives a good prediction for the increasing rate of charge separation with
“While Marcus' theory of electron transfer neglects nuclear tunnelling [2], and can therefore underestimate the electron transfer rate at low temperatures, semi-classical Marcus theory can be extended to a fully quantum-mechanical treatment based on the theory of nonradiative transitions that includes nuclear tunnelling, and which gives a good prediction for the increasing rate of charge separation”
Quote in the paperNot a substantial claim0 of 1 sources checked- cites [2] source
Not checked in the free run.
May combine two claims.
PremisecitationDephasing noise can shift the site energies, thereby helping to overcome energy gaps, and improving transport between sites without the loss of excitations from the system.
“Dephasing noise can shift the site energies, thereby helping to overcome these energy gaps, and improving transport between sites without the loss of excitations from the system [46].”
Quote in the paperSubstantial claim0 of 1 sources checked- cites [46] source
Not checked in the free run.
May combine two claims.
PremisecitationQuantum beatings related to electronic coherences have a small amplitude and decay within only 60-240 fs.
“It was found that quantum beatings related to electronic coherences have a small amplitude and decay within only 60-240 fs.”
Quote in the paperNot a substantial claim0 of 2 sources checkedProbably not a substantial claim: may not pass S1 (asserted), S3 (load-bearing).
PremisecitationIt has been suggested that the incredible accuracy of the compass is the result of avoided crossings of the spin energy levels of radicals formed in cryptochromes, a process that is genuinely quantum mechanical.
“In response to this it has been suggested that the incredible accuracy of the compass is the result of avoided crossings of the spin energy levels of radicals formed in cryptochromes, a process that is genuinely quantum mechanical [99].”
Quote in the paperNot a substantial claim0 of 1 sources checked- cites [99] source
Not checked in the free run.
May combine two claims.
PremisecitationSinglet-triplet mixing experiences the influence of the Earth's magnetic field and has offered some way of explaining behavioural observations such as light-dependence, inclination aspect and resonance effects of the avian compass.
“It is the singlet -triplet mixing that experiences the influence of the Earth's magnetic field and that has offered some way of explaining behavioural observations such as the light-dependence [94], inclination aspect [95] and resonance effects of the avian compass [96,97].”
Quote in the paperNot a substantial claim0 of 4 sources checkedProbably not a substantial claim: may not pass S3 (load-bearing), S4 (based).
Premisenone givenThe challenges for the study of exciton transport in photosynthesis, including disordered pigment networks and fluctuating exciton energy levels coupled to exciton dynamics, also arise in other non-biological settings.
“The challenges for the study of exciton transport in photosynthesis, including the disordered nature of the pigment networks, fluctuating exciton energy levels on similar time scales and coupled to exciton dynamics, also arise in other, non-biological settings.”
Quote in the paperNot a substantial claimMay combine two claims.
InterpretationcitationTransport on time scales of about 100 femtoseconds is impossible to explain within classical Marcus hopping models, and coherent transfer must explicitly be included.
“Transport on such time scales is impossible to explain within classical Marcus 'hopping' models and the coherent transfer must explicitly be included [81,82].”
Quote in the paperSubstantial claim0 of 2 sources checkedMay combine two claims.
Premisenone givenStrongly bound Frenkel excitons are generated inside organic photovoltaic devices and diffuse until they reach an interface between donor and acceptor regions.
“Strongly bound Frenkel excitons are generated inside the device, which then diffuse until they reach an interface between donor and acceptor regions.”
Quote in the paperNot a substantial claimMay combine two claims.
PremisecitationRecent theoretical and experimental developments have highlighted potential roles for quantum-mechanical tunnelling in enzyme-catalysed multiple-hydrogen transfer, and there has been a focus on depicting hydrogen transfer within a quantum-mechanical formalism.
“Transition-state theory has been used as the basis of explanations of enzyme catalysis, but recent theoretical and experimental developments have highlighted potential roles for quantum-mechanical tunnelling in enzyme-catalysed multiple-hydrogen transfer, and there has been a focus on depicting hydrogen transfer within a quantum-mechanical formalism [87].”
Quote in the paperNot a substantial claim0 of 1 sources checked- cites [87] source
Not checked in the free run.
Probably not a substantial claim: may not pass S3 (load-bearing), S4 (based).
PremisereasoningThe development of existing renewable energy technologies such as silicon-based PV has taught that purely physical performance criteria such as energy-conversion efficiency are often less important than techno-economic performance measures such as life cycle analysis.
“The development of existing renewable energy technologies such as silicon-based PV has taught that purely physical performance criteria such as energy-conversion efficiency are often less important than techno-economic performance measures such as life cycle analysis.”
Quote in the paperNot a substantial claimMay combine two claims.
Premisenone givenThe donor and acceptor in organic photovoltaics have different chemical potentials, providing a driving force to dissociate excitons at the interface into free charges that can diffuse to opposite electrodes.
“The donor and acceptor have different chemical potentials, and this provides a driving force to dissociate excitons at the interface into free charges, which can then diffuse to opposite electrodes.”
Quote in the paperNot a substantial claimProbably not a substantial claim: may not pass S3 (load-bearing). May combine two claims.
PremisereasoningIt is increasingly the consensus view that partially delocalized states also arise in efficient organic photovoltaic systems, and it has been argued that the charge separation process is enabled by noise within aggregated regions of the acceptor semiconductor.
“It is increasingly the consensus view that partially delocalized states also arise in efficient organic photovoltaic systems, and it has also been argued that the charge separation process is enabled by noise within aggregated regions of the acceptor semiconductor.”
Quote in the paperNot a substantial claimProbably not a substantial claim: may not pass S3 (load-bearing). May combine two claims.
Premisenone givenTheories of exciton transport in photosynthesis typically involve the interplay of partially delocalized states and noise-assisted transport, describing how transport through a network can be enhanced if the exciton or charge is coupled moderately strongly to molecular vibrational modes.
“Theories of exciton transport in photosynthesis typically involve the interplay of partially delocalized states and noise-assisted transport, describing how transport through a network can be enhanced if the exciton or charge is coupled moderately strongly to molecular vibrational modes.”
Quote in the paperNot a substantial claimMay combine two claims.
PremisecitationThe radical pair mechanism is well established in both experimental and theoretical investigations of avian magnetoreception and is one of the main alternative examples used as evidence for the field of quantum biology.
“In its fourth decade since Schulten first proposed it [93], the radical pair mechanism is well established in both experimental and theoretical investigations of avian magnetoreception and is one of the main alternative (to photosynthesis) examples used as evidence for the field of quantum biology.”
Quote in the paperNot a substantial claim0 of 1 sources checked- cites [93] source
Not checked in the free run.
Probably not a substantial claim: may not pass S2 (checkable).
InterpretationreasoningThe potential to exploit quantum-biological phenomena in engineered macroscopic energy systems depends on whether such phenomena can significantly influence system-scale operation under environmental and economic constraints.
“Just as a foundational question in quantum biology itself asks how nanoscale phenomena can substantially affect macroscopic behaviour in an organism, the potential to exploit quantum-biological phenomena in engineered macroscopic energy systems depends on whether such phenomena can significantly influence system-scale operation under environmental and economic constraints.”
Quote in the paperNot a substantial claimMay combine two claims.
PremisecitationIn recent years, a small number of highly efficient organic photovoltaic devices have emerged, and near 100% charge extraction efficiencies have been reported.
“Yet in recent years, a small number of highly efficient devices have emerged, and near 100% charge extraction efficiencies have been reported [79,80].”
Quote in the paperNot a substantial claim0 of 2 sources checkedProbably not a substantial claim: may not pass S3 (load-bearing).
Premisenone givenThere remains some doubt as to whether the compass mechanism is truly a quantum phenomenon or can be described using a semiclassical framework.
“However, there remains some doubt as to whether the compass mechanism is truly a quantum phenomenon or can be described using a semiclassical framework.”
Quote in the paperNot a substantial claimMay combine two claims.
PremisecitationA number of experiments have observed that a substantial fraction of free charges are generated within just 100 femtoseconds of the exciton reaching an interface, just as femtosecond coherences and dynamics have been observed during photosynthetic exciton transport.
“A number of experiments have observed that a substantial fraction of free charges are generated within just 100 femtoseconds of the exciton reaching an interface, just as femtosecond coherences and dynamics have been observed during photosynthetic exciton transport.”
Quote in the paperSubstantial claim0 of 2 sources checkedProbably not a substantial claim: may not pass S3 (load-bearing). May combine two claims.
PremisecitationMatthew Fisher has proposed that phosphorus can act as a neural qubit allowing quantum processing to occur in the brain, and that this quantumness is protected by Posner molecules, which bind phosphate ions with calcium ions; entangled Posner molecules then trigger non-local quantum correlations of neuron firing rates.
“Promising research in this direction has been done by Matthew Fisher who has proposed that phosphorus can act as a neural qubit allowing quantum processing to occur in the brain, and that this quantumness is protected by so-called Posner molecules, which bind phosphate ions with calcium ions.”
Quote in the paperNot a substantial claim0 of 1 sources checked- cites [119] source
Not checked in the free run.
Probably not a substantial claim: may not pass S3 (load-bearing). May combine two claims.
PremisecitationCryptochrome is responsible for regulating circadian rhythms and closely resembles the DNA repair enzyme photolyase.
“Cryptochrome, among other things, is responsible for regulating circadian rhythms and closely resembles the DNA repair enzyme photolyase [107,108].”
Quote in the paperNot a substantial claim0 of 2 sources checkedProbably not a substantial claim: may not pass S3 (load-bearing).
PremisecitationAccording to the vibrational theory of olfaction, an electron will tunnel from a donor to acceptor site only when the energy difference between these sites is matched by the vibrational energy of the odourant.
“According to this theory, an electron will tunnel from a donor to acceptor site only when the energy difference between these sites is matched by the vibrational energy of the odourant.”
Quote in the paperNot a substantial claim0 of 1 sources checked- cites [110] source
Not checked in the free run.
Probably not a substantial claim: may not pass S3 (load-bearing), S4 (based).
Premisenone givenChaotic fluctuations in the spectrum contain information about universal features of the dynamics of the system.
“Chaotic fluctuations in the spectrum contain information about universal features of the dynamics of the system.”
Quote in the paperNot a substantial claimMay combine two claims.
InterpretationreasoningIf quantum behaviour at the nanoscale is to convey a selective advantage, it must be selectable and this selection takes place at the scale of the overall organism.
“That is, if quantum behaviour at the nanoscale is to convey a selective advantage, it must be selectable and this selection takes place at the scale of the overall organism.”
Quote in the paperNot a substantial claimProbably not a substantial claim: may not pass S2 (checkable).
InterpretationreasoningOnly subsystems that can exist in quantum and classical variants are of interest, since one or the other can be selected by evolution.
“We might claim, therefore, that only subsystems that can exist in quantum and classical variants are of interest, since one or the other can be selected by evolution.”
Quote in the paperNot a substantial claimMay combine two claims.
Interpretationnone givenThe identification of quantum effects in primitive organisms such as bacteria has resulted in the successful application of open quantum systems models to energy and charge transfer processes in photosynthetic systems, and suggests that quantum effects may have played an important role in the emergence of the first living systems.
“The identification of quantum effects in primitive organisms such as bacteria has resulted in the successful application of open quantum systems models to energy and charge transfer processes in photosynthetic systems, as well as suggesting that quantum effects may have played an important role in the emergence of the very first living systems from the inanimate matter of which they are Constitute”
Quote in the paperNot a substantial claimClassified as probably not a substantial claim.
PremisecitationTurin and co-workers propose that general anaesthetics change the structure of the highest occupied molecular orbital of certain molecules, facilitating electron transport between a donor and acceptor that puts the brain in an unconscious state.
“They propose that general anaesthetics change the structure of the highest occupied molecular orbital of certain molecules, facilitating electron transport between a donor and acceptor that puts the brain in an unconscious state.”
Quote in the paperSubstantial claim0 of 1 sources checked- cites [121] source
Not checked in the free run.
Probably not a substantial claim: may not pass S3 (load-bearing). May combine two claims.
PremisecitationArtificial neural network models are historically derived from the dynamics of biological neural nets and are thus close to the question of the compatibility of quantum dynamics and neural computation.
“These artificial neural network models are historically derived from the dynamics of biological neural nets [116,117], and are thus close to the question of the compatibility of quantum dynamics and neural computation.”
Quote in the paperNot a substantial claim0 of 2 sources checkedProbably not a substantial claim: may not pass S2 (checkable), S3 (load-bearing), S4 (based).
Premisenone givenQuantum features visible in macroscopic biosystems have to survive transition to high spectral densities.
“Quantum features visible in macroscopic biosystems have to survive transition to high spectral densities.”
Quote in the paperNot a substantial claimProbably not a substantial claim: may not pass S3 (load-bearing), S4 (based).
Premisenone givenThe detection of molecular precursors of life in interstellar ices suggests that the building blocks of life could possibly have emerged in space and been delivered to Earth by objects such as comets or meteorites.
“The detection of the molecular precursors of life in interstellar ices suggests that the building blocks of life could possibly have emerged in space and been delivered to Earth by objects such as comets or meteorites.”
Quote in the paperNot a substantial claimProbably not a substantial claim: may not pass S3 (load-bearing). May combine two claims.
PremisecitationIn the model of Romero et al. [23], quantum-coherent charge separation in the Photosystem II reaction centre of higher plants proceeds along one of at least two pathways, with the first three steps involving coherent relaxation due to coupling with a vibrational mode and the last step involving incoherent transfer.
“Schematic of quantum-coherent charge separation in the Photosystem II reaction centre of higher plants along one of at least two existing pathways, according to the model in[23].”
- Also stated in: § 8. Discussion and conclusion · plain
“The first three steps involve coherent relaxation due to coupling with a vibrational mode, while the last step involves incoherent transfer.”
Quote in the paperNot a substantial claim0 of 1 sources checked- cites [23] source
Not checked in the free run.
- Also stated in: § 8. Discussion and conclusion · plain
Probably not a substantial claim: may not pass S4 (based).
Premisenone givenCoarse-grained classical models fail to give an accurate picture of a range of processes taking place in living systems.
“It is clear that coarse-grained classical models fail to give an accurate picture of a range of processes taking place in living systems.”
Quote in the paperNot a substantial claimMay combine two claims.
PremisecitationThe prototype quantum heat engine's quantum advantage using thermodynamic measures of performance has been quantified, and the principle's applicability for realistic biological structures demonstrated.
“Its quantum advantage using thermodynamic measures of performance has been quantified, and the principle's applicability for realistic biological structures demonstrated [133].”
Quote in the paperSubstantial claim0 of 1 sources checked- cites [133] source
Not checked in the free run.
Probably not a substantial claim: may not pass S2 (checkable). May combine two claims.
InterpretationreasoningThe claim that all biology is quantum biology is trivialized because it depends on chemistry and all chemistry is quantum at atomic and molecular scales; thus it is impossible for evolution to select anything other than quantum subsystems here.
“This trivializes the claim that all biology is quantum biology because it depends on chemistry and all chemistry is quantum at atomic and molecular scales; thus it is impossible for evolution to select anything other than quantum subsystems here.”
Quote in the paperNot a substantial claim
The paper relies on this without support.
Quantum mechanics is the fundamental theory that describes the properties of subatomic particles, atoms, molecules, molecular assemblies and possibly beyond.
“Quantum mechanics is the fundamental theory that describes the properties of subatomic particles, atoms, molecules, molecular assemblies and possibly beyond.”
The paper relies on this without support.
Quantum mechanics operates on the nanometre and sub-nanometre scales and is at the basis of fundamental life processes such as photosynthesis, respiration and vision.
“Quantum mechanics operates on the nanometre and sub-nanometre scales and is at the basis of fundamental life processes such as photosynthesis, respiration and vision.”
The paper relies on this without support.
All living systems are made up of molecules, and fundamentally all molecules are described by quantum mechanics.
“All living systems are made up of molecules, and fundamentally all molecules are described by quantum mechanics.”
The paper relies on this without support.
In most cases, subtle quantum effects on (inter)molecular scales do not play a determining role in overall biological function.
“In most cases, subtle quantum effects on (inter)molecular scales do not play a determining role in overall biological function.”
The paper relies on this without support.
The differences between a classical approximation and a quantum-mechanical model are generally negligible in many biological functions.
“The differences between a classical approximation and a quantum-mechanical model are generally thought to be negligible in these cases, even though at the basis every process is entirely governed by the laws of quantum mechanics.”
The paper relies on this without support.
A detailed understanding of the fine control of photodynamics by external influences on the light-harvesting complex, such as during non-photochemical quenching, is still missing.
“A detailed understanding of the fine control of the photodynamics by external influences on the light-harvesting complex, such as which occur during non-photochemical quenching, an important regulatory mechanism to dissipate excess energy in photosynthesis, is still missing.”
The paper relies on this without support.
The role of excited-state vibronic coherence in excitation energy transfer in photosynthesis remains to be determined.
“However, experimental confirmation of excited-state vibronic coherence was also found [48] and its role in excitation energy transfer in photosynthesis remains to be determined.”
The paper relies on this without support.
A primary limitation of current artificial photosynthetic systems is storage and instability of their catalysts caused by over-accumulation of charge.
“A primary limitation of current systems is storage as well as the instability of their catalysts caused by an over-accumulation of charge.”
The paper relies on this without support.
Globally, less than 20% of energy is consumed as electricity, and almost all of the remaining 80% is consumed as fuel at final consumption.
“Globally, less than 20% of energy is consumed as electricity; almost all of the remaining 80% is consumed as fuel at final consumption.”
The paper relies on this without support.
Fuel is likely to remain dominant within the time frame of tipping points in anthropogenic climate change and fossil-fuel depletion.
“Although the share of energy consumed as electricity is steadily growing, fuel is likely to remain dominant within the time frame of tipping points in anthropogenic climate change and fossil-fuel depletion.”
The paper relies on this without support.
Existing extremely efficient photovoltaic cells are too expensive for most practical applications and in some cases require elements with such low abundances that they would not be globally scalable even if affordable.
“Existing extremely efficient photovoltaic cells are too expensive for most practical applications and in some cases require elements with such low abundances that they would not be globally scalable even if affordable.”
The paper relies on this without support.
Purely physical performance criteria such as energy-conversion efficiency are often less important than techno-economic performance measures such as life cycle analysis.
“The development of existing renewable energy technologies such as silicon-based PV has taught that purely physical performance criteria such as energy-conversion efficiency are often less important than techno-economic performance measures such as life cycle analysis.”
The paper relies on this without support.
We have not yet been able to synthesize even a small functional peptide from basic components.
“Despite remarkable work in viable DNA design [130], we have not yet been able to synthesize even a small functional peptide from basic components, and are still a long way from understanding exactly what distinguishes a collection of molecules from the collection of molecules that make up a living system, and what role quantum effects may have played in the origins of life.”
Claims other papers make about this one
Each is checked against this paper’s own text: does it say what the citing paper says it does?
Research in the field of quantum biology has had some success in identifying how quantum processes might benefit living organisms.
“Research in the field of quantum biology has had some success in identifying how quantum processes might benefit living organisms [1][2][3][4][5] .”
From Quantum effects in the brain: A review (2020) · cites this paper as [1]
The mutual exclusion of biological and quantum systems is no longer so absolute.
“However, the mutual exclusion of biological and quantum systems is no longer so absolute.”
From Quantum effects in the brain: A review (2020) · cites this paper as [1]
The avian compass has been suggested to exploit quantum effects with behavioural evidence supporting the hypothesis.
“The avian compass has also been suggested to exploit quantum effects with behavioural evidence supporting the hypothesis.”
From Quantum effects in the brain: A review (2020) · cites this paper as [1]
The citation lists haven’t been fetched yet
References 133 · Cited by 274
Research works printed but not linked: 4
- 10.1063/1.3002335 · DOI · Paper page
- 10.1039/C7SC02983G · DOI · Paper page
- Dyson GM, 1928, Some aspects of the vibration theory of odor, Perfumery Essent. Oil Rec., 19, 456
- Lockwood M, 1989, Mind, body and the quantum
- Authors
- Marais, A., Adams, B., Ringsmuth, A. K., Ferretti, M., Gruber, J. M., Hendrikx, R., Schuld, M., Smith, S. L., Sinayskiy, I., Krüger, T. P. J., Petruccione, F., & van Grondelle, R.
- Affiliations
- University of KwaZulu-Natal (ZA)
- The University of Queensland (AU)
- Vrije Universiteit Amsterdam (NL)
- University of Cambridge (GB)
- National Institute for Theoretical Physics (ZA)
- University of Pretoria (ZA)
- Institute for Lasers, Life and Biophotonics, Faculty of Sciences, VU University Amsterdam, De Boelelaan 1081, 1081 HV Amsterdam, The Netherlands
- Corresponding author
- Krüger, Tjaart P. J.
- ORCID
- Venue
- Journal of The Royal Society Interface
- Publisher
- The Royal Society
- Published
- 2018-11
- Volume
- 15
- Issue
- 148
- Pages
- 20180640
- ISSN
- 1742-5662 (ISSN-L)
- 1742-5689
- PMC
- PMC6283985
- OpenAlex
- W2901825094
- Cited by
- 274
- References
- 133
- Citations by year
- 2026: 36 · 2025: 41 · 2024: 43 · 2023: 39 · 2022: 48 · 2021: 26 · 2020: 28 · 2019: 13
- FWCI
- 1.34
- Type
- journal article
- Language
- en
- Open access
- bronze
- doi.org
- Locations
- Journal of The Royal Society Interface (publishedVersion)
- Europe PMC (PubMed Central) (publishedVersion)
- PubMed Central (publishedVersion)
- PubMed (publishedVersion)
- VU Research Portal (publishedVersion, other-oa)
- UpSpace Institutional Repository (University of Pretoria) (submittedVersion)
- Data Archiving and Networked Services (DANS) (submittedVersion, other-oa)
- Funders
- South African Research Chair
- Royal Dutch Academy of Sciences
- Advanced investigator grant (267333, PHOTPROT)
- University of Pretoria's Research Development Programme
- TOP grant (700.58.305)
- ARC Centre of Excellence for Engineered Quantum Systems.
- Winton Programme for the Physics of Sustainability.
- National Research Foundation
- Topics
- Physical Sciences › Physics and Astronomy › Atomic and Molecular Physics, and Optics › Spectroscopy and Quantum Chemical Studies
- Health Sciences › Medicine › Physiology › Biofield Effects and Biophysics
- Physical Sciences › Physics and Astronomy › Atomic and Molecular Physics, and Optics › Quantum Mechanics and Applications
- Keywords
- quantum biology, biological processes, future research directions
- MeSH terms
- Biophysics, Quantum Theory, Systems Biology
About these checks
Registry, retraction, Cites and statistics results are computed, not judged, with one exception: a printed reference that no index lists is read once by a model before it counts as a citation error. Claims are extracted by a model and kept only when their quote appears verbatim in the text; each cited source is then checked, with a model’s help, for whether it says what the claim relies on. Those verdicts can be wrong — read the claim’s quote and the cited source before relying on one.
Claims read by deepseek-v4.1-flash under definition version 3 (extract-v3) on 2026-10-10.
Classified by jev-1.13-20260917 (gold-guideline-v0.2) on 2026-10-10.
Statistics and arithmetic are recomputed, not judged.
Confidence bands are shown only for fields calibrated on our annotated test set. None is calibrated yet, so no band is shown.
What counts as a claim ›How we measure confidence ›How we check this ›
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