The DOI matches its Crossref record; 6 of the 6 references it cites were found in a registry or an index.
Contemporary gaps in research on digital divide in education: a literature review
Abstract
While computer technology permeates all spheres of life in modern society, the outcomes of using technology are different for different groups. The “digital divide” is probably one of the most undefined terms in educational research. One of the most pressing challenges is the definition of digital divide itself. Many of the contemporary research papers still focus on the gaps in access/possession of technology while this issue is not as relevant as it used to be. Most contemporary research papers simply do not even provide a definition of the construct they investigate. Those who target higher levels of the digital divide do not define the strand they focus on or use different interchangeable terms to name it. This article reviews contemporary literature critically and clarifies basic terms related to the digital divide with a specific focus on computer and information literacy. It also provides a definition of the digital divide that shifts focus from the traditional understanding of its levels and focuses on computer and information literacy as its core, as this construct encompasses all “new literacies” and is crucial for functioning and achieving outcomes in the information society.
Overview
The claims and statistics of this paper haven’t been checked yet.
Run the check — free, no account needed. It reads the open-access text and checks the sources it cites.
Integrity signals
Registry
Cites
Statistics
Verification
Claims the paper makes
The claims and statistics of this paper haven’t been checked yet.
Run the check — free, no account needed. It reads the open-access text and checks the sources it cites.
Claims other papers make about this one
Each is checked against this paper’s own text: does it say what the citing paper says it does?
The source backs part of the claim, not all of it — or backs it for a different population, condition or comparison.
In the citing paper
“Similarly, investigations into students' information-seeking behavior in higher education reveal a persistent gap between access to digital resources and the ability to judge their quality, relevance, and epistemic reliability (Kunz et al., 2024; Mirazchiyski, 2025).”
From Information competence and critical thinking in digital environments evidence from university students in Kazakhstan (2026) · cites this paper as Mirazchiyski, 2025
Experimental — accuracy not yet measured
Self-check
Percentages, sums and reported differences re-computed from the paper’s own numbers.
The self-check needs the paper’s full text.
Citations
Cites
From digital literacy to digital competence: the teacher digital competency (TDC) framework
Falloon, G. (2020) · Educational Technology Research and Development · doi:10.1007/s11423-020-09767-4 · Cited by 1,372 · cited 1×
“Finally, Falloon [51] builds an entire framework of “digital competency” where the adopted description of the term recognizes not only the knowledge on using hardware and applications, but also skills to communicate through ICT and information skills.”
Mengist, W., Soromessa, T., & Legese, G. (2020) · MethodsX · doi:10.1016/j.mex.2019.100777 · Cited by 1,110
Marsh, H. W., Pekrun, R., Parker, P. D., Murayama, K., Guo, J., Dicke, T., & Arens, A. K. (2019) · Journal of Educational Psychology · doi:10.1037/edu0000281 · Cited by 535
Is there a gender gap? A meta-analysis of the gender differences in students' ICT literacy
Siddiq, F., & Scherer, R. (2019) · Educational Research Review · doi:10.1016/j.edurev.2019.03.007 · Cited by 297
Jin, K.-Y., Reichert, F., Cagasan, L. P., de la Torre, J., & Law, N. (2020) · Computers & Education · doi:10.1016/j.compedu.2020.103968 · Cited by 178
Hohlfeld, T. N., Ritzhaupt, A. D., & Barron, A. E. (2013) · Educational Technology Research and Development · doi:10.1007/s11423-013-9304-7 · Cited by 92
Research works printed but not linked: 81
- Burks, A.R., Burks, A.W.: The First Electronic Computer: The Atanasoff Story. University of Michigan Press, Ann Arbor (1989)
- Hargittai, E., Hinnant, A.: Digital Inequality: Differences in young adults’ use of the internet. Communication Res. 35, 602–621 (2008) · DOI · Paper page
- Adhikari, J., Scogings, C., Mathrani, A., Sofat, I.: Evolving digital divides in information literacy and learning outcomes: A BYOD journey in a secondary school. IJILT. 34, 290–306 (2017). https://doi.org/10.1108/IJILT-04-2017-0022 · DOI
- Talaee, E., Noroozi, O.: Re-conceptualization of Digital Divide among primary School children in an era of Saturated Access to Technology. Iejee. 12, 27–35 (2019). https://doi.org/10.26822/Iejee.2019155334 · DOI
- Hohlfeld, T., Ritzhaupt, A., Barron, A., Kemker, K.: Examining the digital divide in K-12 public schools: Four-year trends for supporting ICT literacy in Florida. Comput. Educ. 51, 1648–1663 (2008). https://doi.org/10.1016/j.compedu.2008.04.002 · DOI
- van Dijk, J.: Digital divide research, achievements and shortcomings. Poetics. 34, 221–235 (2006) · DOI · Paper page
- Kucukaydin, I., Tisdell, E.J.: The discourse on the Digital divide: Are we being co-opted? InterActions. UCLA J. Educ. Inform. Stud. 4, 1–19 (2008)
- Mirazchiyski, P.: The Digital divide: The role of Socioeconomic Status across countries. Šolsko Polje. 3–4, 23–52 (2016)
- van Dijk, J., Hacker, K.: The Digital divide as a Complex and Dynamic Phenomenon. Inform. Soc. 19, 315 (2003) · DOI · Paper page
- Vehovar, V., Sicherl, P., Hüsing, T., Dolnicar, V.: Methodological Challenges of Digital divide measurements. Inform. Soc. 22, 279–290 (2006). https://doi.org/10.1080/01972240600904076 · DOI
- Buzzetto-Hollywood, N.A., wang, C., Elobeid, H., Elobaid, M.: Addressing information literacy and the Digital Divide in Higher Education. IJELL. 14, 077–093 (2018). https://doi.org/10.28945/4029 · DOI
- Ercikan, K., Asil, M., Grover, R.: Digital divide: A critical context for digitally based assessments. epaa. 26, 1–24 (2018). https://doi.org/10.14507/epaa.26.3817 · DOI
- Henderson, R.: Classroom pedagogies, digital literacies and the home-school digital divide. Int. J. Pedagogies Learn. 6, 152–161 (2011). https://doi.org/10.5172/ijpl.2011.152 · DOI
- Kaarakainen, M.T., Kivinen, O., Vainio, T.: Performance-based testing for ICT skills assessing: A case study of students and teachers’ ICT skills in Finnish schools. Univ. Access. Inf. Soc. 17, 349–360 (2018). https://doi.org/10.1007/s10209-017-0553-9 · DOI
- Karpinski, Z., Biagi, F., Di Pietro, G.: Computational Thinking, Socioeconomic Gaps, and Policy Implications. International Association for the Evaluation of Educational Achievement, Amsterdam (2021)
- Lau, W.W.F., Yuen, A.H.K.: Factorial invariance across gender of a perceived ICT literacy scale. Learn. Individual Differences. 41, 79–85 (2015). https://doi.org/10.1016/j.lindif.2015.06.001 · DOI
- Lu, J., Hao, Q.: What factors impact on primary school students’ online engagement for learning and entertainment at home. J. Comput. Educ. 1, 133–150 (2014). https://doi.org/10.1007/s40692-014-0007-9 · DOI
- Weber, M., Becker, B.: Browsing the web for School: Social Inequality in adolescents’ School-Related Use of the internet. SAGE Open. 9, 215824401985995 (2019). https://doi.org/10.1177/2158244019859955 · DOI
- Berger, P.: Who needs teachers? Factors associated with learning ICT skills from teachers in a multilevel analysis of the ICILS data. MedienPädagogik. 35, 116–135 (2019). https://doi.org/10.21240/mpaed/35/2019.10.22.X · DOI
- Chen, B.: Exploring the Digital divide: The Use of Digital Technologies in Ontario Public Schools. CJLT / RCAT. 41 (2015). https://doi.org/10.21432/T2KP6F · DOI
- Mitra, S., Dangwal, R.: Acquisition of computer literacy skills through self-organizing systems of learning among children in Bhutan and India. Prospects. 47, 275–292 (2017). https://doi.org/10.1007/s11125-017-9409-6 · DOI
- Oblak Črnič, T.: Slovenians Offline: Class and Cultural aspects of Digital Exclusion. Czech Sociol. Rev. 49, 927–950 (2013). https://doi.org/10.13060/00380288.2013.49.6.03 · DOI
- Gerick, J., Eickelmann, B., Bos, W.: School-level predictors for the use of ICT in schools and students’ CIL in international comparison. Large-scale Assess. Educ. 5, 5 (2017). https://doi.org/10.1186/s40536-017-0037-7 · DOI
- Liu, I.F., Ko, H.W.: The Relationship among ICT Skills, Traditional Reading Skills and Online Reading Ability. Presented at the 13th International Conference on Cognition and Exploratory Learning in Digital Age (CELDA), Mannheim (2016)
- Moreno-Morilla, C., Guzmán-Simón, F., García-Jiménez, E.: Digital and information literacy inside and outside Spanish primary education schools. Learn. Cult. Social Interact. 28, 100455 (2021). https://doi.org/10.1016/j.lcsi.2020.100455 · DOI
- Scherer, R., Siddiq, F.: The relation between students’ socioeconomic status and ICT literacy: Findings from a meta-analysis. Comput. Educ. 138, 13–32 (2019). https://doi.org/10.1016/j.compedu.2019.04.011 · DOI
- Bryant, L.: Emerging trends in social software for education. In: Emerging Technologies for Learning, pp. 9–18. Becta, Coventry (2007)
- Cruz-Jesus, F., Oliveira, T., Bacao, F.: Digital divide across the European Union. Inf. Manag. 49, 278–291 (2012). https://doi.org/10.1016/j.im.2012.09.003 · DOI
- Mecinas Montiel, J.M., THE DIGITAL DIVIDE IN MEXICO: A MIRROR OF POVERTY: Mexican Law Rev. 9, 93–102 (2016). https://doi.org/10.1016/j.mexlaw.2016.09.005 · DOI
- Epstein, D., Nisbet, E.C., Gillespie, T.: Who’s responsible for the Digital divide? Public perceptions and policy implications. Inform. Soc. 27, 92–104 (2011). https://doi.org/10.1080/01972243.2011.548695 · DOI
- Fraillon, J., Schulz, W., Ainley, J.: International Computer and Information Literacy Study: Assessment Framework. International Association for the Evaluation of Educational Achievement, Amsterdam (2013)
- Fraillon, J., Ainley, J., Schulz, W., Duckworth, D., Friedman, T.: IEA International Computer and Information Literacy Study 2018: Assessment Framework. (2019) · DOI
- Snyder, H.: Literature review as a research methodology: An overview and guidelines. J. Bus. Res. 104, 333–339 (2019). https://doi.org/10.1016/j.jbusres.2019.07.039 · DOI · Paper page
- Kim, M.-C., Kim, J.-K.: Digital divide: Conceptual discussions and Prospect. In: Kim, W., Ling, T.-W., Lee, Y.-J., Park, S.-S. (eds.) The Human Society and the Internet Internet-Related Socio-Economic Issues, pp. 78–91. Springer-, Berlin (2001) · DOI
- Alkan, M., Meinck, S.: The relationship between students’ use of ICT for social communication and their computer and information literacy. Large-scale Assess. Educ. 4, 15 (2016). https://doi.org/10.1186/s40536-016-0029-z · DOI
- Ritzhaupt, A.D., Liu, F., Dawson, K., Barron, A.E.: Differences in Student Information and Communication Technology Literacy based on Socio-Economic Status, ethnicity, and gender: Evidence of a Digital divide in Florida schools. J. Res. Technol. Educ. 45, 291–307 (2013). https://doi.org/10.1080/15391523.2013.10782607 · DOI
- Zhong, B., Zhu, F., Xia, L.: Is there a Digital divide between urban students and migrant students in China? SAGE Open. 11, 215824402110163 (2021). https://doi.org/10.1177/21582440211016387 · DOI
- Elena-Bucea, A., Cruz-Jesus, F., Oliveira, T., Coelho, P.S.: Assessing the role of age, Education, gender and income on the Digital divide: Evidence for the European Union. Inf. Syst. Front. 23, 1007–1021 (2021). https://doi.org/10.1007/s10796-020-10012-9 · DOI
- Hollman, A.K., Obermier, T.R., Burger, P.R.: Rural measures: A quantitative study of the Rural Digital divide. J. Inform. Policy. 11, 176–201 (2021). https://doi.org/10.5325/jinfopoli.11.2021.0176 · DOI
- Liu, J.: Bridging Digital divide amidst Educational Change for socially inclusive learning during the COVID-19 pandemic. SAGE Open. 11, 1–8 (2021). https://doi.org/10.1177/21582440211060810 · DOI
- van Deursen, A., van Dijk, J.: The first-level digital divide shifts from inequalities in physical access to inequalities in material access. New. Media Soc. 21, 354–375 (2019). https://doi.org/10.1177/1461444818797082 · DOI · Paper page
- Pozas, M., Letzel, V.: Do you think you have what it takes? – exploring predictors of Pre-service teachers’ prospective ICT use. Tech. Know Learn. (2021). https://doi.org/10.1007/s10758-021-09551-0 · DOI · Paper page
- Aesaert, K., Van Nijlen, D., Vanderlinde, R., Tondeur, J., Devlieger, I., van Braak, J.: The contribution of pupil, classroom and school level characteristics to primary school pupils’ ICT competences: A performance-based approach. Comput. Educ. 87, 55–69 (2015). https://doi.org/10.1016/j.compedu.2015.03.014 · DOI
- Fraillon, J., Ainley, J., Schulz, W., Friedman, T., Duckworth, D.: Preparing for Life in a Digital World: IEA International Computer and Information Literacy Study 2018 International Report. International Association for the Evaluation of Educational Achievement, Amsterdam (2020) · DOI
- Hatlevik, O.E., Christophersen, K.A.: Digital competence at the beginning of upper secondary school: Identifying factors explaining digital inclusion. Comput. Educ. 63, 240–247 (2013). https://doi.org/10.1016/j.compedu.2012.11.015 · DOI
- Punter, R.A., Meelissen, M.R.M., Glas, C.A.W.: Gender differences in computer and information literacy: An exploration of the performances of girls and boys in ICILS 2013. Eur. Educational Res. J. 16, 762–780 (2017). https://doi.org/10.1177/1474904116672468 · DOI
- Rambousek, V., Štípek, J., Wildová, R.: ICT competencies and their development in primary and lower-secondary schools in the Czech Republic. Procedia - Social Behav. Sci. 171, 535–542 (2015). https://doi.org/10.1016/j.sbspro.2015.01.158 · DOI
- Bundsgaard, J., Gerick, J.: Patterns of students’ computer use and relations to their computer and information literacy: Results of a latent class analysis and implications for teaching and learning. Large-scale Assess. Educ. 5, 16 (2017). https://doi.org/10.1186/s40536-017-0052-8 · DOI
- Wu, T.F., Chen, C.M., Lo, H.S., Yeh, Y.M., Chen, M.C.: Factors related to ICT competencies for students with Learning Disabilities. Educational Technol. Soc. 21, 76–88 (2018)
- Alghamdi, J., Holland, C.: A comparative analysis of policies, strategies and programmes for information and communication technology integration in education in the Kingdom of Saudi Arabia and the republic of Ireland. In: Education and Information Technologies. pp. 4721–4745 (2020) · DOI
- Dincer, S.: A study of the relationship between pupils and parents’ computer literacy level and use. Procedia - Social Behav. Sci. 46, 484–489 (2012). https://doi.org/10.1016/j.sbspro.2012.05.146 · DOI
- Hatlevik, O.E., Scherer, R., Christophersen, K.A.: Moving beyond the study of gender differences: An analysis of measurement invariance and differential item functioning of an ICT literacy scale. Comput. Educ. 113, 280–293 (2017). https://doi.org/10.1016/j.compedu.2017.06.003 · DOI
- Kim, H.S., Kil, H.J., Shin, A.: An analysis of variables affecting the ICT literacy level of Korean elementary school students. Comput. Educ. 77, 29–38 (2014). https://doi.org/10.1016/j.compedu.2014.04.009 · DOI · Paper page
- Buabeng-Andoh, C., Issifu, Y.: Implementation of ICT in learning: A study of students in Ghanaian secondary schools. Procedia - Social Behav. Sci. 191, 1282–1287 (2015). https://doi.org/10.1016/j.sbspro.2015.04.555 · DOI
- Sanders, C.K., Scanlon, E.: The Digital divide is a Human rights Issue: Advancing social inclusion through Social Work Advocacy. J. Hum. Rights Soc. Work. 6, 130–143 (2021). https://doi.org/10.1007/s41134-020-00147-9 · DOI
- Bach, A., Shaffer, G., Wolfson, T.: Digital Human Capital: Developing a Framework for understanding the Economic Impact of Digital Exclusion in Low-Income communities. J. Inform. Policy. 3, 247 (2013). https://doi.org/10.5325/jinfopoli.3.2013.0247 · DOI
- Wang, P.Y.: Examining the Digital divide between rural and urban schools: Technology availability, teachers’ integration level and students’ perception. JCT. 2, 127–139 (2013). https://doi.org/10.5430/jct.v2n2p127 · DOI
- Kormos, E., Wisdom, K.: Rural schools and the Digital divide: Technology in the Learning experience. tpre. 11 (2021). https://doi.org/10.3776/tpre.2021.v11n1p25-39 · DOI
- Sun, J.C.Y., Metros, S.E.: The Digital divide and its impact on academic performance. US-China Educ. Rev. A. 2, 153–161 (2011)
- Aydin, M.: Does the digital divide matter? Factors and conditions that promote ICT literacy. Telematics Inform. 58, 101536 (2021). https://doi.org/10.1016/j.tele.2020.101536 · DOI
- Wei, K.K., Teo, H.H., Chan, H.C., Tan, B.C.Y.: Conceptualizing and testing a Social Cognitive Model of the Digital divide. Inform. Syst. Res. 22, 170–187 (2011). https://doi.org/10.1287/isre.1090.0273 · DOI
- de Leew, E.D., Hox, J.J., Dillman, D.A.: The cornerstones of Survey Research. In: de Leew, E.D., Hox, J.J., Dillman, D.A. (eds.) International Handbook on Survey Methodology, pp. 1–17. Lawrence Erlbaum Associates, Taylor & Francis Group, New York (2008)
- Perez-Paredes, P., Sanchez-Tornel, M.: Understanding E-Skills in the FLT Context. In: de Cassia Veiga Marriott, R. and Lupion Torres, P. (eds.) Handbook of Research on E-Learning Methodologies for Language Acquisition. pp. 1–21. IGI Global (2009) · DOI
- Schneider, K.: What does competence Mean? PSYCH. 10, 1938–1958 (2019). https://doi.org/10.4236/psych.2019.1014125 · DOI
- Pilgrim, J., Martinez, E.E.: Defining literacy in the 21st Century: A guide to terminology and skills. Tex. J. Lit. Educ. 1, 60–69 (2013)
- Aydin, M.: A multilevel modeling approach to investigating factors impacting computer and information literacy: ICILS Korea and Finland sample. Educ. Inf. Technol. 27, 1675–1703 (2022). https://doi.org/10.1007/s10639-021-10690-1 · DOI
- Marsh, H.W.: Sport Motivation orientations: Beware of Jingle-Jangle fallacies. J. Sport Exerc. Psychol. 16, 365–380 (1994). https://doi.org/10.1123/jsep.16.4.365 · DOI
- Pekrun, R.: The murky distinction between curiosity and interest: State of the art and future prospects. Educ. Psychol. Rev. 31, 905–914 (2019). https://doi.org/10.1007/s10648-019-09512-1 · DOI
- Marsh, H.W., Craven, R.G., Hinkley, J.W., Debus, R.L.: Evaluation of the big-two-factor theory of academic motivation orientations: An evaluation of Jingle-Jangle fallacies. Multivar. Behav. Res. 38, 189–224 (2003). https://doi.org/10.1207/S15327906MBR3802_3 · DOI
- Gunkel, D.J.: Second thoughts: Toward a critique of the digital divide. New. Media Soc. 5, 499–522 (2003) · DOI
- Livingstone, S.: Children’s use of the internet: Reflections on the Emerging Research Agenda. New. Media Soc. 5, 147–166 (2003). https://doi.org/10.1177/1461444803005002001 · DOI
- Fraillon, J., Ainley, J., Schulz, W., Friedman, T., Gebhardt, E.: School Environments for Teaching and Learning Computer and Information Literacy. In: Preparing for Life in a Digital Age, pp. 167–193. Springer International Publishing, Cham (2014) · DOI
- Radaelli, C.M., Pasquier, R.: Conceptual issues. In: Graziano, P., Vink, M.P. (eds.) Europeanization, pp. 35–45. Palgrave Macmillan UK, London (2008) · DOI
- Clements, E.: A conceptual framework for digital civics pedagogy informed by the philosophy of information. JD. 76, 571–585 (2020). https://doi.org/10.1108/JD-07-2019-0139 · DOI
- Clements, E.: Exploring Digital Civics: A Framework of Key concepts to Guide Digital Civics initiatives. Philos. Technol. 36, 1–27 (2023). https://doi.org/10.1007/s13347-023-00614-x · DOI
- Clements, E.: Asking Dorian Gray for a Digital Civics Education. J. Lit. Technol. 23, 124–156 (2022)
- Clements, E.: Digital Civics and Nomos: Response to Digital Civics and Algorithmic Citizenship in a global scenario. Philos. Technol. 36, 46 (2023). https://doi.org/10.1007/s13347-023-00649-0 · DOI
- Clements, E.: Theuth, Thamus, and digital civics: Plato’s formulation of memory and its lessons for civic life in the digital age. Memory Stud. 15, 767–783 (2022). https://doi.org/10.1177/17506980221094516 · DOI
- Floridi, L.: Information ethics: An environmental approach to the digital divide. Philos. Contemp. World. 9, 39–45 (2002) · DOI
- Floridi, L.: A look into the future impact of ICT on our lives. Inform. Soc. 23, 59–64 (2007). https://doi.org/10.1080/01972240601059094 · DOI
- Floridi, L.: The Logic of Information: A Theory of Philosophy as Conceptual Design. Oxford University Press, Oxford New York (N.Y.) (2019) · DOI
Cited by
Sorted by citations
Yrymbayeva, N., Yermekova, M., Tezekova, O., Issatayeva, B., Zhubandykova, A., & Tuxanbayev, A. (2026) · Frontiers in Education · doi:10.3389/feduc.2026.1809360 · Cited by 2
Bridging the Digital Divide: Socioeconomic Equity in AI-Assisted Hybrid Learning
Poh, R., Tan, B. W., Lee, H. W., & Tan, K. L. (2025) · SN Computer Science · doi:10.1007/s42979-025-04593-y · Cited by 1
Metadata
- Authors
- Mirazchiyski, P. V.
- Venue
- Universal Access in the Information Society
- Published
- 2024-10-26
- Volume
- 24
- Issue
- 2
- Pages
- 991-1008
- ISSN
- 1615-5289
- 1615-5297
- Cited by
- 26
- References
- 6
- Language
- en
- Funders
- Javna agencija za znanstvenoraziskovalno in inovacijsko dejavnost Republike Slovenije (J5-2553)
About these checks
Registry, retraction, Cites and statistics results are computed, not judged, with one exception: a printed reference that no index lists is read once by a model before it counts as a citation error. Claims are extracted by a model and kept only when their quote appears verbatim in the text; each cited source is then checked, with a model’s help, for whether it says what the claim relies on. Those verdicts can be wrong — read the claim’s quote and the cited source before relying on one.
Statistics and arithmetic are recomputed, not judged.
Confidence bands are shown only for fields calibrated on our annotated test set. None is calibrated yet, so no band is shown.
What counts as a claim ›How we measure confidence ›How we check this ›
Are you an author, or do you see a problem with this page? Request a review
How to cite
Cite CoChat for the checks on this page, and the paper for its own findings.
- This page
- CoChat. (2026). Citation check: Contemporary gaps in research on digital divide in education: a literature review. https://app.cochat.ai/papers/10.1007/s10209-024-01166-3
- The paper
- Mirazchiyski, P. V. (2025). Contemporary gaps in research on digital divide in education: a literature review. Universal Access in the Information Society. https://doi.org/10.1007/s10209-024-01166-3
