The DOI matches its Crossref record; 16 of the 16 references it cites were found in a registry or an index; 6 of the 22 sources its claims cite were checked for support.
Material Science and the Present and Future of African Archaeology
Open accessAbstract
Humans in Africa and elsewhere have always been deeply entangled with artificial and natural materials. This makes the study of materials recovered from archaeological sites a cornerstone of archaeological sciences. The integration of earth and engineering science approaches with archaeology and anthropology opened a new horizon in temporal and spatial explorations of the skills, knowledge, cognition, values, and beliefs of past human societies. Within their textural and compositional structures, materials contain partial histories of the cultural and natural processes that created them. This makes it possible to ask big questions about the African past—what, where, when, how, and why materials were made. The identification of constituents of materials, where the raw materials were sourced and processed into final products, and the time when the technology used to produce them was available are answerable through materials analysis (Sibilia, 1996 ). The reasons why certain materials and technologies were invented and the socio-cultural and economic roles of materials are central to explorations of interactions, changing values, and continuity and change across space and time. Such information is accessible through the application of engineering and earth science techniques, making it possible to reconstruct technology and how societies and materials co-shaped each other. Research to date has contributed to our understanding of the histories of specific materials and their entanglements with diverse societies—from ancient Egypt to Ethiopia, ancient Ghana and Mali, and Great Zimbabwe, to Swahili settlements on the Indian Ocean coast. However, challenges with laboratory facilities in many parts of Africa mean that materials analysis, in particular, and archaeological science in general, are poorly developed. This calls for the erasure of barriers through collaboration within Africa and between Africa and different areas of the Global South and Global North.
Overview
AI snapshot
Written from the paper’s full text.
TL;DR
This review argues that material science approaches—rooted in the structure-property-processing-performance "material science tetrahedron"—are central to reconstructing African technologies, exchange networks, and social values, but that their practice in Africa is constrained by scarce laboratory infrastructure and by "parachute science" conducted from the Global North. It surveys key material classes and case studies and calls for African-led capacity building.
Key findings
- Africa has the world's longest archaeological record, beginning with stone tools used by hominins circa 3 million years ago; ochre and shell use appears by 100,000 years ago, and fire heat-treatment of stone was engineered at sites such as Pinnacle Point.
- Material repertoires broadened in the Holocene without linearity: pottery in present-day southern Mali (Dogon Country) by 9000 BCE; metals in ancient Egypt from 5000 BCE (copper, then bronze, then iron); iron and copper in West Africa from 1000 BCE, reaching the southern third of the continent by 100 CE; glass produced in Egypt from 2500 BCE, with ancestral Yoruba independently developing primary glass production in West Africa from CE 1000.
- Case studies show materials analysis resolving provenance and circulation: Wilmsen et al. (2009) used mineralogical analysis of ceramics dated 900–1100 CE in Botswana to demonstrate pot circulation over 400–600 km between the Okavango Delta and Bosutswe; Stephens et al. (2023) used trace element and lead isotope analysis of copper ingots to document metal circulation north and south of the Zambezi; Babalola et al. (2018) documented primary and secondary glass production at Ile-Ife.
- The paper identifies a capacity gap: cutting-edge laboratories are rare in Africa outside South Africa, so practical materials analysis is absent from many African university curricula and most African colleagues are not engaged in archaeological science, with analyses often limited to macroscopic stylistic observation for typologies.
Methods
- This is a review/commentary essay synthesizing published archaeometric research rather than presenting new data; it draws on the author's own prior work (e.g., Chirikure 2015, 2022) and cited case studies.
- It organizes the field around the material science tetrahedron paradigm (Vandiver, 2001), which links macroscopic, microscopic, textural, and compositional characterization to structure, properties, processing history, and performance.
- Cited analytical approaches include petrographic thin-section microscopy of ceramics, SEM-EDS and mineralogical analysis of metallurgical remains, and trace element and lead isotope analysis of metals.
Limitations
- The paper states that laboratory facilities are poorly developed in much of Africa, that most archaeological science research takes the form of parachute science conducted outside Africa with limited involvement of African collaborators, and that co-authorship may create dependency rather than capacity.
- The paper states that organic materials such as wood require exceptional preservation, biasing the surviving record toward inorganic materials.
- Evident from the text: as a perspective/review piece it presents no systematic search strategy, inclusion criteria, or quantitative synthesis, and its case studies are illustrative selections rather than a comprehensive survey.
Model-written summary. Check it against the paper before relying on it.
Integrity signals
Registry
Cites
Statistics
Verification
Claims the paper makes
6 of 22 cited sources checked · 2 supported · 0 flagged · accuracy not yet measured
- Premisecitation
A recent trace element and lead isotope analysis study of copper ingots used in central and southern Africa documented metal circulation networks in regions to the north and south of the Zambezi.
“Meanwhile, a recent trace element and lead isotope analysis study of copper ingots used in central and southern Africa documented metal circulation networks in regions to the north and south of the Zambezi (Stephens et al., 2023).”
Quote in the paperNot a substantial claim1 of 1 sources checked- cites Stephens et al., 2023 source
- Premisecitation
Ancestral Yoruba people independently developed technologies of primary glass production in West Africa from CE 1000 onwards.
“Glass was produced in Egypt from 2500 BCE, but ancestral Yoruba people independently developed technologies of primary glass production in West Africa from CE 1000 onwards (Babalola et al., 2018).”
Quote in the paperNot a substantial claim1 of 1 sources checked- cites Babalola et al., 2018 source
The Introduction identifies Ile-Ife glass as a likely product of local primary production, and §4.3 says the evidence strongly indicates that HLHA beads were being made there by the 11th century CE. But §4.3 also says the beginnings of that production are uncertain, and the paper does not establish that the technology was developed independently. It supports local production by about CE 1000, not the claimed independent origin or a definite starting date. (LLM, conf=0.85)
Experimental — accuracy not yet measured
- Interpretationreasoning
Material analyses in Africa are often limited to macroscopic observations of stylistic variables for building typologies.
“Material analyses are often limited to macroscopic observations of stylistic variables for building typologies.”
Quote in the paperSubstantial claim - Premisecitation
Thondhlana (2013) reconstructed copper smelting at Shankare, Phalaborwa, using mineralogical (microscopic) and SEM-EDS (compositional) analyses to document the skills of the smelters in gaining metal and processing it into usable objects.
“Thondhlana (2013), for example, reconstructed copper smelting at Shankare, Phalaborwa, using mineralogical (microscopic) and SEM-EDS (compositional) analyses to document the skills of the smelters in gaining metal and processing it into usable objects.”
Quote in the paperNot a substantial claim0 of 1 sources checked- cites Thondhlana, 2013 source
- Premisecitation
At Pinnacle Point, advanced stone tools were engineered using fire to heat-treat raw materials before working them to shape.
“Meanwhile, at places such as Pinnacle Point, advanced stone tools were engineered using fire to heat-treat raw materials before working them to shape (Brown et al., 2009).”
Quote in the paperNot a substantial claim0 of 1 sources checked- cites Brown et al., 2009 source
- Premisecitation
By comparing the fabric of pots to different geologies and lithologies, Wilmsen et al. demonstrated the circulation of pots over distances of 400-600 km between the Okavango Delta and Bosutswe through social networks such as marriage, trade, and other forms of exchange.
“By comparing the fabric of pots to different geologies and lithologies, they were able to demonstrate the circulation of pots over distances of 400-600 km between the Okavango Delta and Bosutswe through social networks such as marriage, trade, and other forms of exchange.”
Quote in the paperNot a substantial claim0 of 1 sources checked- cites Wilmsen et al., 2009 source
- Premisecitation
Materials analysis and archaeological science are poorly developed in many parts of Africa because of challenges with laboratory facilities.
“However, challenges with laboratory facilities in many parts of Africa mean that materials analysis, in particular, and archaeological science in general, are poorly developed.”
Quote in the paperSubstantial claim0 of 1 sources checked- cites Thondhlana et al., 2022 source
Checked before — its earlier verdict is held back until a new check runs.
- Premisecitation
The identification of constituents of materials, where the raw materials were sourced and processed into final products, and the time when the technology used to produce them was available are answerable through materials analysis.
“The identification of constituents of materials, where the raw materials were sourced and processed into final products, and the time when the technology used to produce them was available are answerable through materials analysis (Sibilia, 1996).”
Quote in the paperSubstantial claim0 of 1 sources checked- cites Sibilia, 1996
Couldn’t be matched to a paper in Crossref, so it can’t be checked.
- Interpretationcitation
Material analysis is revolutionizing knowledge of the past, making it possible to better approximate the dates, places, contexts, technology, and cultural meanings embedded in material production, as well as the role of materials development in human history.
“Material analysis is revolutionizing knowledge of the past-making it possible to better approximate the dates, places, contexts, technology, and cultural meanings embedded in material production, as well as the role of materials development in human history.”
Quote in the paperSubstantial claim - Premisecitation
Material science techniques make it possible to address big questions about the production, allocation, and circulation of resources and consumption of materials in the African past.
“Material science techniques, therefore, make it possible to address big questions about the production, allocation, and circulation of resources and consumption of materials in the African past (Mantler & Schreiner, 2000;Shugar & Mass, 2012).”
Quote in the paperSubstantial claim0 of 2 sources checked- cites Mantler & Schreiner, 2000
- cites Shugar & Mass, 2012
Couldn’t be matched to a paper in Crossref, so it can’t be checked.
- Premisecitation
Studies of archaeological materials have been greatly influenced by the physical and engineering sciences.
“Studies of archaeological materials have been greatly influenced by the physical and engineering sciences (Leng, 2009;Pollard et al., 2023).”
Quote in the paperSubstantial claim0 of 2 sources checked- cites Leng, 2009
Couldn’t be matched to a paper in Crossref, so it can’t be checked.
- cites Pollard et al., 2023
Couldn’t be matched to a paper in Crossref, so it can’t be checked.
- Premisecitation
The template and methodology for studies of archaeological materials come from the structure-property-processing-performance paradigm of materials science and engineering, also known as the material science tetrahedron.
“The template and methodology for these studies come from the structure-property-processing-performance paradigm of materials science and engineering, also known as the material science tetrahedron (Vandiver, 2001).”
Quote in the paperSubstantial claim0 of 1 sources checked- cites Vandiver, 2001 source
- Premisecitation
Wilmsen et al. applied mineralogical analyses to a sample of ceramics from selected sites in Botswana dating between 900 and 1100 CE.
“An example comes from Wilmsen et al. (2009) who applied mineralogical analyses to a sample of ceramics from selected sites in Botswana dating between 900 and 1100 CE.”
Quote in the paperNot a substantial claim0 of 1 sources checked- cites Wilmsen et al., 2009 source
- It may state two separate claims as one. 6
- Probably not a substantial claim. 8
It may state two separate claims as one.
PremisecitationBabalola et al. (2018) applied a combination of microscopic and compositional techniques to study unique evidence of primary and secondary glass production in Ile-Ife, documenting innovation and experimentation as ancestral Yoruba people interacted with materials to produce a highly valued glass.
“In Nigeria, Babalola et al. (2018) have applied a combination of microscopic and compositional techniques to study unique evidence of primary and secondary glass production in Ile-Ife, documenting innovation and experimentation as ancestral Yoruba people interacted with materials to produce a highly valued glass.”
Quote in the paperNot a substantial claim1 of 1 sources checked- cites Babalola et al., 2018 source
Split into 2 atoms — 1 confirmed, 1 partially supported, 0 disputed, 0 misattributed, 0 unverifiable. Expand the claim to see per-atom verdicts.
Experimental — accuracy not yet measured
It may state two separate claims as one.
PremisecitationColleagues from the Global North continue to exploit the rich African archaeological record but with little capacity building and skills development for African scholars and institutions.
“Colleagues from the Global North continue to exploit the rich African archaeological record but with little capacity building and skills development for African scholars and institutions (Thondhlana et al., 2022).”
Quote in the paperSubstantial claim1 of 1 sources checked- cites Thondhlana et al., 2022 source
The Introduction says African scholars can be treated as conduits for access to archaeological sites rather than full research partners, and the Conclusion calls for more capacity building. However, “little capacity building and skills development” overstates the account: the Training in African Archaeometallurgy section credits Global North institutions and researchers with training many African archaeologists. The paper’s concern is that training has not produced sufficient sustainable local research capacity. (LLM, conf=0.84)
Experimental — accuracy not yet measured
It may state two separate claims as one.
InterpretationcitationMost research applying scientific techniques to materials in African archaeology takes the form of parachute science because laboratory analyses do not take place in Africa and often do not fully involve African collaborators.
“However, most of this research takes the form of parachute science because laboratory analyses do not take place in Africa and often do not fully involve African collaborators.”
Quote in the paperSubstantial claim1 of 1 sources checked- cites Thondhlana et al., 2022 source
The Sustainability section says African archaeological samples are frequently shipped to overseas laboratories, and the Introduction describes unequal power dynamics in collaborations with Global North scholars. But the paper does not establish that most research using scientific techniques in African archaeology is parachute science or that African collaborators are often not fully involved. It also discusses analyses conducted at African universities. (LLM, conf=0.85)
Experimental — accuracy not yet measured
It may state two separate claims as one.
PremisecitationMajor laboratories in the Global North are equipped with cutting-edge equipment, but this is a rarity in Africa outside of South Africa.
“However, while major laboratories in the Global North are equipped with cutting-edge equipment, this is a rarity in Africa outside of South Africa (Thondhlana et al., 2022).”
Quote in the paperSubstantial claim1 of 1 sources checked- cites Thondhlana et al., 2022 source
Probably not a substantial claim. The paper’s conclusions may not depend on it. It may state two separate claims as one.
PremisecitationIn ancient Egypt, metals were used from 5000 BCE, beginning with copper, followed by bronze, and iron.
“In ancient Egypt, metals were used from 5000 BCE, beginning with copper, followed by bronze, and iron.”
Quote in the paperNot a substantial claim0 of 1 sources checked- cites Chirikure, 2015 source
Probably not a substantial claim. The paper’s conclusions may not depend on it.
PremisecitationIn ancient Egypt, gold, silver, tin, mercury, and lead were used.
“In between and along the way, gold, silver, tin, mercury, and lead were used (Chirikure, 2015).”
Quote in the paperNot a substantial claim0 of 1 sources checked- cites Chirikure, 2015 source
Probably not a substantial claim.
InterpretationreasoningEquipment purchases for the Museum of West African Art and Archaeology project will allow high-impact archaeological science to be performed in West Africa.
“This will involve equipment purchases allowing high-impact archaeological science to be performed in West Africa.”
Quote in the paperSubstantial claim- Rests on an assumption: The Museum of West African Art and Archaeology in Benin City, Nigeria, is developing state-of-the-art archaeological facilities in collaboration with the British Museum, German Archaeological Institute, and the University of Oxford.
Probably not a substantial claim.
PremisecitationThe material science tetrahedron states that characterization of materials using macroscopic, microscopic, textural, and compositional techniques yields information about their structure, properties, history of process, and performance.
“As a theoretical approach, the material science tetrahedron states that the characterization of materials using macroscopic, microscopic, textural, and compositional techniques yields information about their structure, properties, history of process, and performance (Chirikure, 2022).”
Quote in the paperSubstantial claim0 of 1 sources checked- cites Chirikure, 2022 source
Probably not a substantial claim. It may be too vague to check against evidence.
Interpretationnone givenOngoing material studies, regardless of where they are being performed, are useful for reconstructing technologies, documenting interactions, and tracking group identities.
“Ongoing material studies, regardless of where they are being performed, are obviously very useful for reconstructing technologies, documenting interactions, and tracking group identities.”
Quote in the paperNot a substantial claimProbably not a substantial claim. The paper’s conclusions may not depend on it.
PremisecitationIn world archaeology, studying materials such as lithics, pottery, metals, and glass is now a mature field combining macroscopic, microscopic, and elemental analyses.
“In world archaeology, studying materials such as lithics, pottery, metals, and glass is now a mature field combining macroscopic, microscopic, and elemental analyses (Leng, 2009).”
Quote in the paperNot a substantial claim0 of 1 sources checked- cites Leng, 2009
Couldn’t be matched to a paper in Crossref, so it can’t be checked.
It may state two separate claims as one.
InterpretationreasoningThe lack of facilities means that practical laboratory-based materials analysis does not feature in the curriculum of many African universities, and most African colleagues are not engaged with research in archaeological science.
“This lack of facilities means that practical laboratory-based materials analysis does not feature in the curriculum of many African universities, and most African colleagues are not engaged with research in archaeological science.”
Quote in the paperSubstantial claimProbably not a substantial claim. The paper’s conclusions may not depend on it.
PremisecitationPottery was used in present-day southern Mali (Dogon Country) by 9000 BCE.
“Pottery was used in present-day southern Mali (Dogon Country) by 9000 BCE (Huysecom et al., 2009).”
Quote in the paperNot a substantial claim0 of 1 sources checked- cites Huysecom et al., 2009 source
Checked before — its earlier verdict is held back until a new check runs.
Probably not a substantial claim. It may be too vague to check against evidence.
InterpretationreasoningGiven time, substantial economic investments in research infrastructure will make it possible for high-impact archaeological science to be done in many African institutions.
“Given time, these sorts of substantial economic investments in research infrastructure will make it possible for high-impact archaeological science to be done in many African institutions.”
Quote in the paperNot a substantial claim- Rests on an assumption: The Museum of West African Art and Archaeology in Benin City, Nigeria, is developing state-of-the-art archaeological facilities in collaboration with the British Museum, German Archaeological Institute, and the University of Oxford.
- Rests on an assumption: Collaboration between Professors Anders Lindahl of Lund University and Innocent Pikirayi is leading to the establishment of a Ceramic Petrography Laboratory at the University of Pretoria.
The paper relies on this without support.
Africa has the longest archaeological record in the world, beginning with stone tools first used by hominins circa 3 million years ago.
“Based on preserved materials, Africa has the longest archaeological record in the world, beginning with stone tools first used by hominins circa 3 million years ago, and then continuing through the ages into contemporary times.”
The paper relies on this without support.
Iron and copper emerged in West Africa from 1000 BCE, before appearing in the southern third of the continent by 100 CE.
“Iron and copper also emerged in West Africa from 1000 BCE, before appearing in the southern third of the continent by 100 CE.”
The paper relies on this without support.
The Museum of West African Art and Archaeology in Benin City, Nigeria, is developing state-of-the-art archaeological facilities in collaboration with the British Museum, German Archaeological Institute, and the University of Oxford.
“Fortunately, things are fast changing: the Museum of West African Art and Archaeology in Benin City, Nigeria, is developing state-of-the-art archaeological facilities in collaboration with the British Museum, German Archaeological Institute, and the University of Oxford.”
The paper relies on this without support.
Collaboration between Professors Anders Lindahl of Lund University and Innocent Pikirayi is leading to the establishment of a Ceramic Petrography Laboratory at the University of Pretoria.
“Collaboration between Professors Anders Lindahl of Lund University and Innocent Pikirayi is leading to the establishment of a Ceramic Petrography Laboratory at the University of Pretoria.”
Citations
Cites
Fire As an Engineering Tool of Early Modern Humans
Brown, K. S., Marean, C. W., Herries, A. I. R., Jacobs, Z., Tribolo, C., Braun, D., Roberts, D. L., Meyer, M. C., & Bernatchez, J. (2009) · Science · doi:10.1126/science.1175028 · Cited by 506
Leng, Y. (2008) · Wiley eBooks · doi:10.1002/9780470823002 · Cited by 310
X-ray fluorescence spectrometry in art and archaeology
Mantler, M., & Schreiner, M. (2000) · X-Ray Spectrometry · doi:10.1002/(sici)1097-4539(200001/02)29:1 · Cited by 267
Huysecom, E., Rasse, M., Lespez, L., Neumann, K., Fahmy, A., Ballouche, A., Ozainne, S., Maggetti, M., Tribolo, C., & Soriano, S. (2009) · Antiquity · doi:10.1017/s0003598x00099245 · Cited by 110
A Guide to Materials Characterization and Chemical Analysis
Sibilia, J. P. (1988) · Cited by 67
Metals in Past Societies: A Global Perspective on Indigenous African Metallurgy
Chirikure, S. (2015) · SpringerBriefs in Archaeology · doi:10.1007/978-3-319-11641-9 · Cited by 67
Self-citationThe social geography of pottery in Botswana as reconstructed by optical petrography
Wilmsen, E. N., Killick, D., Rosenstein, D. D., Thebe, P. C., & Denbow, J. R. (2009) · Journal of African Archaeology · doi:10.3213/1612-1651-10125 · Cited by 40
A Guide to Materials Characterization and Chemical Analysis
Fueß, H. (1999) · Zeitschrift für Physikalische Chemie · doi:10.1524/zpch.1999.210.part_1.130 · Cited by 37
Babalola, A. B., Dussubieux, L., McIntosh, S. K., & Rehren, T. (2018) · Journal of Archaeological Science · doi:10.1016/j.jas.2017.12.005 · Cited by 34
The Role of Materials Research in Ceramics and Archaeology
Vandiver, P. (2001) · Annual Review of Materials Research · doi:10.1146/annurev.matsci.31.1.373 · Cited by 24
The Politics of Knowledge Production: Training and Practice of Archaeological Science in Africa
Thondhlana, T. P., Lyaya, E. C., & Mtetwa, E. (2022) · African Archaeological Review · doi:10.1007/s10437-022-09491-9 · Cited by 18
Stephens, J., Killick, D., & Chirikure, S. (2023) · PLOS ONE · doi:10.1371/journal.pone.0282660 · Cited by 14
Self-citationThondhlana, T. (2013) · Azania: Archaeological Research in Africa · doi:10.1080/0067270x.2012.759683 · Cited by 10
Chirikure, S. (2022) · Archaeometry · doi:10.1111/arcm.12784 · Cited by 3
Self-citationProvenancing Inorganic Materials: The Influences of Biography and Mutability
Pollard, A. M. (2023) · Handbook of Archaeological Sciences · doi:10.1002/9781119592112.ch47
Shugar, A. N., & Mass, J. L. (2013) · Handheld XRF for Art and Archaeology · doi:10.2307/j.ctt9qdzfs.5
Flagged first, then by citations
Cited by
Sorted by citations
Optical and Electron Microscopy in the Archaeology of Sub‐Saharan Africa
Killick, D. J., & Chirikure, S. (2025) · Archaeometry · doi:10.1111/arcm.70048 · Cited by 1
Self-citation
Metadata
- Authors
- Chirikure, S.
- Affiliations
- University of Oxford (GB)
- Corresponding author
- Chirikure, Shadreck
- Venue
- African Archaeological Review
- Published
- 2023-11-17
- Volume
- 40
- Issue
- 4
- Pages
- 797-800
- ISSN
- 0263-0338 (ISSN-L)
- 1572-9842
- OpenAlex
- W4388774289
- Cited by
- 1
- References
- 15
- Citations by year
- 2025: 1
- FWCI
- 0.82
- Type
- journal article
- Language
- en
- Open access
- hybrid
- doi.org
- Locations
- African Archaeological Review (publishedVersion, cc-by)
- Topics
- Social Sciences › Arts and Humanities › Archeology (arts and humanities) › Cultural Heritage Materials Analysis
- Social Sciences › Archeology › Archaeology and Rock Art Studies
- Social Sciences › Archeology › Archaeology and ancient environmental studies
- Keywords
- material analysis, African archaeology, archaeometry, raw material procurement, materials technology, ancient Egypt, Great Zimbabwe
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