Social Class is Dead. Long Live Social Class! Stereotype Threat among Low Socioeconomic Status Individuals

Using multivariate statistics

Tabachnick, B. G., & Fidell, L. S. (1983) · Cited by 79,882

Advances In Experimental Social Psychology

(2022) · Advances in experimental social psychology · doi:10.1016/s0065-2601(22)x0002-6 · Cited by 22,559

Distinction: A Social Critique of the Judgement of Taste*

Bourdıeu, P. (2018) · Routledge eBooks · doi:10.4324/9781315680347-10 · Cited by 20,325

Untitled work

(1954) · Cited by 15,935

The Handbook of Social Psychology

Gravatt, A. E., Lindzey, G. E., & Aronson, F. (1969) · The Family Coordinator · doi:10.2307/582242 · Cited by 12,518

Stereotype threat and the intellectual test performance of African Americans.

Steele, C. M., & Aronson, J. (1995) · Journal of Personality and Social Psychology · doi:10.1037/0022-3514.69.5.797 · Cited by 9,020

Implicit social cognition: Attitudes, self-esteem, and stereotypes

Greenwald, A. G., & Banaji, M. R. (1995) · Psychological Review · doi:10.1037/0033-295x.102.1.4 · Cited by 6,682

The role of stereotyping in system‐justification and the production of false consciousness

Jost, J. T., & Banaji, M. R. (1994) · British Journal of Social Psychology · doi:10.1111/j.2044-8309.1994.tb01008.x · Cited by 3,558

Stereotype Threat and Women's Math Performance

Spencer, S. J., Steele, C. M., & Quinn, D. M. (1999) · Journal of Experimental Social Psychology · doi:10.1006/jesp.1998.1373 · Cited by 3,435

Social stigma and self-esteem: The self-protective properties of stigma.

Crocker, J., & Major, B. (1989) · Psychological Review · doi:10.1037/0033-295x.96.4.608 · Cited by 3,426

Unlocking math potential in students from lower SES backgrounds – using instructional scaffolds to improve performance

Bach, K. M., Reinhold, F., & Hofer, S. I. (2025) · npj Science of Learning · doi:10.1038/s41539-025-00358-7 · Cited by 16

Towards a Critical Social Psychology of Social Class

Day, K., Rickett, B., & Woolhouse, M. (2017) · Palgrave Macmillan UK eBooks · doi:10.1057/978-1-137-51018-1_23 · Cited by 9

Social Characteristics as Predictors of ADHD Labeling across the Life Course

Thompson, M., Wilkinson, L., & Woo, H. (2020) · Society and Mental Health · doi:10.1177/2156869320916535 · Cited by 9

The effects of poverty stereotype threat on inhibition ability in individuals from different income‐level families

Wang, S., & Yang, D. (2020) · Brain and Behavior · doi:10.1002/brb3.1770 · Cited by 10

Blurring Boundaries: Bisexual Versus Lesbian and Heterosexual Women's Self-Assessed Creativity

Ben-Zeev, A., Dennehy, T. C., & Kaufman, J. (2012) · Journal of Bisexuality · doi:10.1080/15299716.2012.702614 · Cited by 9

Randomised Controlled Trial of Self-Affirmation Intervention on Students’ Academic Performance: Promising Impacts on Students from Migrant Hukou Status

Yang, J., Zhao, Y., Ji, Y., Ma, J., Li, L., & Hu, X. (2023) · Psychology Research and Behavior Management · doi:10.2147/prbm.s419112 · Cited by 8

The role of job titles in online peer-to-peer lending: An empirical investigation on skilled borrowers

Davaadorj, Z., Enkhtaivan, B., & Lu, W. (2024) · Journal of Behavioral and Experimental Finance · doi:10.1016/j.jbef.2024.100890 · Cited by 7

Identity, Status, and Culture: Examining Barriers of Success for Students from Low Socioeconomic Backgrounds

Walker, A. (2014) · New Directions for Teaching and Learning · doi:10.1002/tl.20110 · Cited by 7

Facial expression stereotypes of rich and poor adults and children

Zhang, X., Yan, R., Sun, S., & Zuo, B. (2021) · Cognitive Processing · doi:10.1007/s10339-021-01040-7 · Cited by 7

Emotionsregulation im Kontext von Stereotype Threat: Die Reduzierung der Effekte negativer Stereotype bei ethnischen Minderheiten

Martiny, S. E., Götz, T., & Keller, M. M. (2012) · Springer eBooks · doi:10.1007/978-3-531-93449-5_23 · Cited by 7

Can you expect those with status to be ethical? The effects of status on trust

Soderberg, A. T., & Howe, D. (2020) · Ethics & Behavior · doi:10.1080/10508422.2020.1819282 · Cited by 7

Inclusivity: An Effective Tool for Achieving Quality Mathematics Classroom Instruction in Nigerian Secondary Schools

Bature, I. J., Atweh, B., & Treagust, D. F. (2016) · Universal Journal of Educational Research · doi:10.13189/ujer.2016.040122 · Cited by 7

Customer Education. Eine interdisziplinäre Diskussion zu Risiken und Potenzialen von Stereotypen

Stolz-Römmermann, J., Siems, F., & Niemand, T. (2018) · Springer eBooks · doi:10.1007/978-3-658-24217-6_15 · Cited by 6

Collective self-doubt: does subjective SES predict behavioral self-handicapping tendency in college students?

Wondra, T., & McCrea, S. M. (2021) · Social Psychology of Education · doi:10.1007/s11218-021-09678-z · Cited by 11

The effects of activating a “baby brain” stereotype on pregnant women’s cognitive functioning

Pownall, M., Conner, M. T., & Hutter, R. R. C. (2021) · Journal of Applied Social Psychology · doi:10.1111/jasp.12802 · Cited by 10

Predicting College Students’ Intergroup Friendships Across Race/Ethnicity, Religion, Sexual Orientation, and Social Class

Goldstein, S. B. (2013) · Equity & Excellence in Education · doi:10.1080/10665684.2013.838114 · Cited by 6

Low-income low-qualified employees’ access to workplace learning

McPherson, R., & Wang, J. (2014) · Journal of Workplace Learning · doi:10.1108/jwl-10-2013-0084 · Cited by 6

‘Baby brain’ in pregnancy: A review of social psychological explanations and future research directions

Pownall, M., Conner, M. T., & Hutter, R. R. C. (2022) · Social and Personality Psychology Compass · doi:10.1111/spc3.12696 · Cited by 7

Putting social rewards and identity salience to the test: Evidence from a field experiment with teachers in Philadelphia

Bhanot, S. P., Kraft‐Todd, G., Rand, D. G., & Yoeli, E. (2018) · Journal of Behavioral Public Administration · doi:10.30636/jbpa.11.20 · Cited by 6

An interdisciplinary approach to examining prejudice at work: a levels of analysis perspective

LaVan, H., & Lopez, Y. P. (2022) · Management Decision · doi:10.1108/md-06-2021-0771 · Cited by 5

Achievement trajectories in low-achieving students as a function of perceived classroom goal structures and socioeconomic backgrounds

Quintero, M., & Wang, Z. (2023) · Social Psychology of Education · doi:10.1007/s11218-023-09795-x · Cited by 6

Umgang mit Mehrsprachigkeit und sprachsensibler Unterricht aus pädagogischer Sicht: Ein einführender Überblick

Busse, V. (2019) · Sprachsensibilität in Bildungsprozessen · doi:10.1007/978-3-658-27168-8_1 · Cited by 5

Inclusive Teaching Practices in Post-Secondary Education: What Instructors Can Do to Reduce the Achievement Gaps at U.S. CollegesPreprint

Moreu, G., & Bräuer, M. (2021) · doi:10.31234/osf.io/btkzs · Cited by 5

Navigating College with MAAPS: Students' Perceptions of a Proactive Advising Approach

Jura, M. V., & Prieto, K. (2021) · NACADA Journal · doi:10.12930/nacada-21-14 · Cited by 6

The hidden cues of social class: What do people rely on when determining someone else's social class?

Kiebler, J. M., & Stewart, A. J. (2023) · Analyses of Social Issues and Public Policy · doi:10.1111/asap.12373 · Cited by 4

Indonesian educated middle-class fathers’ preferences in pregnancy services at a private hospital

Alam, M. (2020) · International Review of Sociology · doi:10.1080/03906701.2020.1853003 · Cited by 4

Homelessness Prevention through One-To-One Coaching: The Relationship between Coaching, Class Stigma, and Self-Esteem

Holmes, H., & Burgess, G. (2021) · Housing Theory and Society · doi:10.1080/14036096.2021.1887348 · Cited by 4

Social Class: What Is It and Why Does It Matter? (Katy Day)

Day, K., Rickett, B., & Woolhouse, M. (2020) · Springer eBooks · doi:10.1007/978-3-030-55965-6_1 · Cited by 4

Do Students Still Hold Stereotypical Views of STEM Careers? Comparison of Turkish and Australian Student Responses to a STEM Stereotypes Questionnaire

McLure, F. I., Yerdelen-Damar, S., Kaya, K., & Aydin, Z. (2025) · Journal for STEM Education Research · doi:10.1007/s41979-025-00164-1 · Cited by 3

The Effect of Identity on College Performance for Latinos

Romero, T. (2009) · Journal of Latino/Latin American Studies · doi:10.18085/llas.3.4.tm5344734234x808 · Cited by 3

“Not what I Can, but what I Should”

Popović, D., Krpanec, E., & Šverko, I. (2023) · Psihologijske teme · doi:10.31820/pt.32.3.6 · Cited by 3

Libertarian personal responsibility

Preiss, J. B. (2016) · Philosophy & Social Criticism · doi:10.1177/0191453716629710 · Cited by 3

Socioeconomic status stereotype affects motor learning

Lima, M. J. P. F., Chiviacowsky, S., Drews, R., & Cardozo, P. (2024) · Learning and Motivation · doi:10.1016/j.lmot.2024.102026 · Cited by 3

Deflecting Stereotype Threat Through Downward Comparison: When Comparison with Immigrants Boosts the Performance of Stigmatized Native Students

Konan, P. N., Chatard, A., Selimbegović, L., Mugny, G., & Moraru, A. (2011) · Social Justice Research · doi:10.1007/s11211-011-0134-7 · Cited by 3

Bogan bias: Addressing class-based prejudice in physician-patient interactions

Kennedy, M., & Kennedy, M. (2014) · Journal of Social Inclusion · doi:10.36251/josi.74 · Cited by 3

The Illusion of Social Class Identity and Academic Performance: Exploring the Role of Father Education as an Indicator of Socioeconomic Status

Sinha, C., & Mishra, A. K. (2014) · Cited by 3

Still, talentiert, verborgen: Erfolgreiche Zuwanderer und ihre Potenziale

Uslucan, H.-H. (2020) · Springer eBooks · doi:10.1007/978-3-658-18236-6_21 · Cited by 3

Connecting Social Exclusion and Agency

Jay, S., Muldoon, O. T., & Howarth, C. (2018) · Political Psychology · doi:10.1002/9781118982365.ch7 · Cited by 3

Using social psychology to create inclusive education

Easterbrook, M. J., Doyle, L., & Talbot, D. (2025) · British Journal of Social Psychology · doi:10.1111/bjso.12867 · Cited by 3

“And All These Prejudices That Exist, I Think I Also Fall For That” Healthcare Providers’ Perceptions of Interacting With Patients in a Low Socioeconomic Position

Tenfelde, K., Antheunis, M. L., Habibović, M., Widdershoven, J. W. M. G., & Bol, N. (2025) · European Journal of Health Communication · doi:10.47368/ejhc.2025.401 · Cited by 3

Stereotype threat effects on deaf and hard-of-hearing college students’ mathematics performance

Kelly, R. R., Hauser, P. C., Berent, G. P., Rizzo, S. P., Contreras, J., & Jamieson, J. P. (2026) · The Journal of Deaf Studies and Deaf Education · doi:10.1093/jdsade/enaf088 · Cited by 3

Disadvantage and Privilege in our Schools: How Teachers, Psychologists and Policymakers can do Better

Williams, W. R., & Carter, K. A. (2014) · Analyses of Social Issues and Public Policy · doi:10.1111/asap.12045 · Cited by 2

Global Learning Using Biology PBL: A Texas-China Collaboration in Middle Grade Genetics

O’Connor, B., & Hite, R. L. (2017) · Journal of Interdisciplinary Teacher Leadership · doi:10.46767/kfp.2016-0016 · Cited by 2

The Effect of Socioeconomically Disadvantaged Stereotype Threat on Inhibitory Control in Individuals with Different Household Incomes

Wang, S., & Yang, D. (2023) · Behavioral Sciences · doi:10.3390/bs13121016 · Cited by 3

The role of tourism targeted assistance in enhancing endogenous motivation among the economically disadvantaged: a quasi-natural experiment

Guo, L., Guan, Y., Su, Z., Zhang, X., & Tan, Y. (2024) · Asia Pacific Journal of Tourism Research · doi:10.1080/10941665.2024.2358320 · Cited by 2

Experiences with Classism: A Look at Social Class in a Rural High School.

Pietrantoni, Z., Glance, D., & Smith, K. (2015) · Journal of school counseling · Cited by 2

Social Class and Test Performance

Croizet, J., & Millet, M. (2010) · Cited by 2

The Effects of Social Class on Individuals’ Decision-Making Tendencies in a Prestige-Money Game: Social Value or Instrumental Value?

Wang, P., & Tang, C.-H. (2019) · Journal of Gambling Studies · doi:10.1007/s10899-019-09827-2 · Cited by 3

Emotionsregulation im Kontext von Stereotype Threat: Die Reduzierung der Effekte negativer Stereotype bei ethnischen Minderheiten

Martiny, S. E., Götz, T., & Keller, M. M. (2021) · Springer eBooks · doi:10.1007/978-3-658-27789-5_23 · Cited by 4

Status beliefs negatively affect expected university attainment of lower class students

Foley, W. (2023) · Education Inquiry · doi:10.1080/20004508.2023.2296143 · Cited by 2

Facilitating comparative group work in adult education

Francois, E. J., & Schmidt-Lauff, S. (2020) · Studies on adult learning and education/Studies on Adult Learning and Education · doi:10.36253/978-88-5518-155-6.04 · Cited by 2

Development and psychometric validation of the Perceived Classism Scales

Hernandez, J. (2013) · doi:10.17077/etd.hryxbo0v · Cited by 2

Upward socioeconomic status comparison temporarily hinders working memory: an exploratory studyPreprint

Šuran, T., Carnaghi, A., & Rumiati, R. I. (2021) · doi:10.31234/osf.io/2t9v5 · Cited by 2

Overcoming low status or maintaining high status? A multinational examination of the association between socioeconomic status and honour

Sánchez‐Rodríguez, Á., O’Dea, C. J., Üskül, A. K., Kirchner‐Häusler, A., Vignoles, V. L., Chobthamkit, P., Achmad, R. A., Andrianto, S., Kristanto, A. A., Ardi, R., et al. (2025) · British Journal of Social Psychology · doi:10.1111/bjso.12854 · Cited by 2

Greater faculty mentor brilliance beliefs predict lower science identity in first-generation college student researchers

Hernandez, I. A., Smith, J. L., Villodas, M., Sohl, C., & Thoman, D. B. (2025) · Communications Psychology · doi:10.1038/s44271-025-00223-8 · Cited by 1

The “haves” and the “have nots”: Interactive Effect of Disaster Salience, Social Class, and Identity Centrality on Emotions and Workplace Avoidance

Johnson, H. H., Keng, F. T., Bates, J. T., & Umphress, E. E. (2025) · Journal of Business and Psychology · doi:10.1007/s10869-025-10064-1 · Cited by 1

To bridge, link or bond: supporting the pre-graduate transitions of students from low socioeconomic backgrounds

Civile, M. (2026) · Education + Training · doi:10.1108/et-07-2025-0481 · Cited by 1

Getting to the Heart of Social and Educational Disadvantage: Exploring the Impact of Social Interactions Across the Class Divide

Pickering, R. M. (2014) · DigitalCommons (California Polytechnic State University) · Cited by 1

Socioeconomic Status and Social Class as Predictors of Career Adaptability and Educational Aspirations in High School Students

Eshelman, A. J. (2013) · Cited by 1

Theoretical Foundations of Women’s Entrepreneurship and Work-Life Balance

Zerwas, C. S. (2019) · Contributions to management science · doi:10.1007/978-3-030-29804-3_2 · Cited by 1

Psychology and Social Class: The Working-Class as ‘Other’ (Bridgette Rickett)

Day, K., Rickett, B., & Woolhouse, M. (2020) · Springer eBooks · doi:10.1007/978-3-030-55965-6_2 · Cited by 1

Bogan bias: Addressing class-based prejudice in physician-patient interactions

Kennedy, M., & Kennedy, M. (2014) · Journal of Social Inclusion · doi:10.36251/josi74 · Cited by 1

The Poverty Discrimination Puzzle

Steuwer, B., & Lippert‐Rasmussen, K. (2024) · Political Philosophy · doi:10.16995/pp.16493 · Cited by 1

Poverty stereotype threat effect on attention bias in individuals with different household income

Wang, S., & Yang, D. (2025) · Current Psychology · doi:10.1007/s12144-025-07482-y · Cited by 1

Cultural Background as Individual Difference and Exploration of Culturally Responsive Teaching

Suh, M. (2018) · KOREAN ELEMENTARY MORAL EDUCATION SOCIETY · doi:10.17282/ethics.2018..60.147 · Cited by 1

An Interdisciplinary Approach to the Human Mind (Open Access)

Joranger, L. (2018) · Routledge eBooks · doi:10.4324/9781315309699 · Cited by 1

Supporting Inclusion for All; Especially for Students Vulnerable due to their Economic Circumstances: Introducing Manuaute o Te Huia.

Stone, M. (2017) · Kairaranga · doi:10.54322/kairaranga.v18i1.220 · Cited by 1

Still, talentiert, verborgen: Erfolgreiche Zuwanderer und ihre Potenziale

Uslucan, H.-H. (2018) · Springer Reference Psychologie · doi:10.1007/978-3-658-18403-2_21-1 · Cited by 1

Emotionsregulation im Kontext von Stereotype Threat: Die Reduzierung der Effekte negativer Stereotype bei ethnischen Minderheiten

Martiny, S. E., Götz, T., & Keller, M. M. (2020) · Springer eBooks · doi:10.1007/978-3-658-27825-0_23-1 · Cited by 1

Directed Attention and Stereotype Threat in Interracial Interactions.

Tatum, T. J. D. (2009) · Deep Blue (University of Michigan) · Cited by 1

Students' understandings of educational achievement in a high-stakes testing environment : stories from Korean secondary schools

Kim, Y. (2013) · Texas ScholarWorks (Texas Digital Library) · Cited by 1

Branded: How Mental Disorder Labels Alter Task Performance in Perception and Reality

Foy, S. L. (2013) · DukeSpace (Duke University) · Cited by 1

Social networks, social identities, and mindset of at -risk college students

Romero, T. (2009) · Lincoln (University of Nebraska) · Cited by 1

Colourism, confidence and productivity: Experimental evidence from IndiaPreprint

Anjum, N., Chakravarty, S., & Kurosaki, T. (2025) · SSRN Electronic Journal · doi:10.2139/ssrn.5120351 · Cited by 1

Factors Related to Mean Score Group Differences on Cognitive Ability Tests: A Systematic Review

Cuppello, S., Zibarras, L. D., & Corr, P. J. (2025) · Trends in Psychology · doi:10.1007/s43076-025-00504-5

Does university students' attachment to their social class background promote their expectations of moving up the social class hierarchy?

Tabri, N. (2013) · Spectrum Research Repository (Concordia University)

LES EFFETS DES RÉPUTATIONS D'INFÉRIORITÉ INTELLECTUELLE SUR LES PERFORMANCES ACADÉMIQUES : UNE MENACE DE L'IDENTITÉ

Max, S. (2010) · HAL

Metis Post-Secondary Students and the Demotivating Effects of Possible Prejudice

Ferguson, L. M. (2015) · University Library - University of Saskatchewan (University of Saskatchewan)

Meaningfulness of Work as Perceived by Women from Diverse Social Classes: A Grounded Theory Exploration

Hutmire, J. L. (2016) · ScholarWorks (Walden University)

The Burden of Suspicion: A Grounded Theory Study on the Psychological and Interpersonal Consequences of Criminalizing Stereotypes

Skolnik, A. A. (2014) · doi:10.7916/d83b5x82

From Stereotype Threat to Symbolic Violence and Vice Versa

Croizet, J.-C. U. D., & Millet, M. (2011)

Labeled individuals: The influence of stereotypes on interpersonal communication between American and Non-American students

Lamei, K. (2013) · Holmes Museum Of Anthropology (Wichita State University)

ETUDE DES DETERMINANTS DES INEGALITES DE DESTINS SCOLAIRES : Repr esentations de

Souchal, C. (2013)

Putting Social Rewards and Identity Salience to the Test: Evidence from a Field Experiment on Teachers in PhiladelphiaPreprint

Bhanot, S. P., Kraft‐Todd, G., Rand, D. G., & Yoeli, E. (2018) · SSRN Electronic Journal · doi:10.2139/ssrn.3110025

Cultural Identity Salience, Individuation, and Life Satisfaction in Emerging Adulthood

Nice, M. L. (2020)

Desigualdades sociales y trayectorias de rendimiento académico en niños y niñas de la ciudad de Córdoba, Argentina

Degoy, E., & Berra, S. (2020) · Itinerarios Educativos · doi:10.14409/ie.v0i13.9881 · Cited by 1

The Effect of Stereotype Threat on African Americans' Perception of Police Officer Communication Accommodation

Kinney, J. (2020)

The Impact of Dual Stereotype Threat and Power on Negotiation Behavior and Affect

Gipson, A. N. (2021) · doi:10.7916/d8-k2zf-0584

Caste Microaggression: A Barrier to Lower Affective Filter and to Promote Inclusivityin the Classroom

Chaulagain, S. (2021) · International Research Journal of MMC · doi:10.3126/irjmmc.v2i2.38150

A STUDY OF A MATHEMATICS PROFESSIONAL LEARNING COMMUNITY AND COACHING PROGRAM

Barnes, R. A. (2021)

Bibliographie

(2017) · Presses universitaires de Rennes eBooks · doi:10.4000/books.pur.142153

References

Hewer, C. J., & Lyons, E. (2018) · Political Psychology · doi:10.1002/9781118982365.refs

Stereotype Threat

Kleyman, K. S., & Kemmelmeier, M. (2009) · Wiley eBooks · doi:10.1002/9781405165518.wbeoss327

Stereotype Threat

Kleyman, K. S., Loskota, T. E., & Kemmelmeier, M. (2015) · Wiley eBooks · doi:10.1002/9781405165518.wbeoss327.pub2

To Whom Do You Refer? Studying the Effect of Status on Educational InequalityPreprint

Foley, W. (2022) · SSRN Electronic Journal · doi:10.2139/ssrn.4132637

Lien entre sources proximales de soutien social et désengagement scolaire : le sentiment de privation relative comme signal d’alerte

GÜL, B., & Martinot, D. (2023) · Psychologie Française · doi:10.1016/j.psfr.2023.01.001

How social and personal resources support teaching and learning effectiveness

(2023) · Frontiers research topics · doi:10.3389/978-2-83251-636-2

Are Confidence, Competitiveness, and Performance Affected by the Competitor’s Economic Status? Experimental Evidence from AdolescentsPreprint

Pulickal, A., & Chakravarty, S. (2023) · SSRN Electronic Journal · doi:10.2139/ssrn.4518011

Social Class in Counselling Psychology

Liu, W. M., & Colbow, A. J. (2015) · Wiley eBooks · doi:10.1002/9781394259298.ch17

GRE! Standardized testing

Spencer, B., Castano, Æ. E., Spencer, B., Castano, E., & Castano, E. (2007)

Extending the Concept of Stereotype Threat to Social Class: The Intellectual Underperformance of Students from Low Socioeconomic Backgrounds

Croizet, J.-C., & Claire, T. (1998) · Personality and Social Psychology Bulletin · doi:10.1177/0146167298246003 · Cited by 851

Hidden Ways Social Class May Affect Potential For Success

Truong, A. (2014) · CSUN ScholarWorks (California State University, Northridge)

The consequences of stereotype threat on the academic performance of White and non-White lower income college students

Harrison, L. A., Stevens, C. M., Monty, A. N., & Coakley, C. A. (2006) · Social Psychology of Education · doi:10.1007/s11218-005-5456-6 · Cited by 129

The consequences of stereotype threat on the academic performance of White and non-White

Harrison, L. A., Stevens, C. M., Monty, A. N., & Coakley, C. A. (2006)