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Cited by 6,682Social and Intergroup PsychologyRacial and Ethnic Identity ResearchPsychometric Methodologies and Testing

Implicit social cognition: Attitudes, self-esteem, and stereotypes

Greenwald, Anthony G., Banaji, Mahzarin R.·1995·Psychological Review
DOI 10.1037/0033-295x.102.1.4
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Abstract

Social behavior is ordinarily treated as being under conscious (if not always thoughtful) control. However, considerable evidence now supports the view that social behavior often operates in an implicit or unconscious fashion. The identifying feature of implicit cognition is that past experience influences judgment in a fashion not introspectively known by the actor. The present conclusion--that attitudes, self-esteem, and stereotypes have important implicit modes of operation--extends both the construct validity and predictive usefulness of these major theoretical constructs of social psychology. Methodologically, this review calls for increased use of indirect measures--which are imperative in studies of implicit cognition. The theorized ordinariness of implicit stereotyping is consistent with recent findings of discrimination by people who explicitly disavow prejudice. The finding that implicit cognitive effects are often reduced by focusing judges' attention on their judgment task provides a basis for evaluating applications (such as affirmative action) aimed at reducing such unintended discrimination.

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Crossref · 10.1037/0033-295x.102.1.4

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294 of 294 references verified0 citation errors · 0 not checkable

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  • Implicit cognitive bias is often not even within the conscious awareness of the person exhibiting it.

    “Furthermore, it is not only implicit but it is also often not even within the conscious awareness of the person who is exhibiting the bias.”

    From Biased and biasing: the hidden bias cascade and bias snowball effects (2025) · cites this paper as Greenwald & Banaji, 1995

  • Indirect measures are required where implicit cognitive bias is concerned.

    “Indeed, indirect measures are required where implicit cognitive bias is concerned (Greenwald & Banaji, 1995).”

    From Biased and biasing: the hidden bias cascade and bias snowball effects (2025) · cites this paper as Greenwald & Banaji, 1995

  • Self-esteem, defined as a person's sense of self-worth, is closely associated with well-being and a number of other adaptive outcomes.

    “Researchers have found that self-esteem—defined as a person's sense of self-worth—is closely associated with well-being and a number of other adaptive outcomes.”

    From Self-esteem and subjective well-being revisited: The roles of personal, relational, and collective self-esteem (2017) · cites this paper as [5]

  • Most Americans possess implicit negative associations with minority groups that are kept in check through effortful cognitive control.

    “Despite egalitarian beliefs, most Americans possess implicit negative associations with minority groups that are kept in check through effortful cognitive control (31,32).”

    From Economic scarcity alters the perception of race (2014) · cites this paper as [31]

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Authors
Greenwald, A. G., & Banaji, M. R.
Affiliations
  • University of Washington (US)
  • Yale University (US)
ORCID
Venue
Psychological Review
Publisher
American Psychological Association (APA)
Published
1995
Volume
102
Issue
1
Pages
4-27
ISSN
  • 0033-295X (ISSN-L)
  • 1939-1471
DOI
10.1037/0033-295x.102.1.4
OpenAlex
W1965514675
Cited by
6,682
References
297
Citations by year
2026: 208 · 2025: 313 · 2024: 283 · 2023: 336 · 2022: 326 · 2021: 304 · 2020: 501 · 2019: 379 · 2018: 294 · 2017: 284 · 2016: 300 · 2015: 270 · 2014: 256 · 2013: 267 · 2012: 253
FWCI
232.52
Type
journal article
Language
en
Open access
closed
Locations
  • Psychological Review (publishedVersion)
  • PubMed (publishedVersion)
Funders
  • National Science Foundation (9205890, 9120987)
  • National Institute of Mental Health (R01MH041328, MH41328)
Topics
  • Social Sciences › Sociology and Political Science › Social and Intergroup Psychology
  • Social Sciences › Sociology and Political Science › Racial and Ethnic Identity Research
  • Social Sciences › Decision Sciences › Management Science and Operations Research › Psychometric Methodologies and Testing
Keywords
implicit cognition, implicit attitudes, self-esteem, implicit stereotypes, prejudice, indirect measures, attentional focus, discrimination, affirmative action, construct validity
MeSH terms
Attitude, Humans, Prejudice, Self Concept, Social Behavior, Social Perception, Stereotyping, Unconscious, Psychology

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