Cited by 357Mathematics Education and PedagogyVisual and Cognitive Learning ProcessesMathematics Education and Teaching Techniques

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The shuffling of mathematics problems improves learning

Rohrer, Doug, Taylor, Kelli·2007·Instructional Science

DOI 10.1007/s11251-007-9015-8

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Distributed practice in verbal recall tasks: A review and quantitative synthesis.
Cepeda, N. J., Pashler, H., Vul, E., Wixted, J. T., & Rohrer, D. (2006) · Psychological Bulletin · doi:10.1037/0033-2909.132.3.354 · Cited by 1,888
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Schmidt, R. A., & Bjork, R. A. (1992) · Psychological Science · doi:10.1111/j.1467-9280.1992.tb00029.x · Cited by 1,582 · cited 2×
“…have advocated that learners space their study (Bahrick et al., 1993; Bjork, 1979, 1988, 1994; Bloom & Shuell, 1981; Cepeda, Pashler, Vul, Wixted, & Rohrer, 2006; Dempster, 1989; Pashler, Rohrer, Cepeda, & Carpenter, 2007; Reynolds & Glaser, 1964; Schmidt & Bjork, 1992; Smith & Rothkopf, 1984).”
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Practical Aspects of Memory
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Training research and education
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Maintenance of Foreign Language Vocabulary and the Spacing Effect
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“For this reason, many previous authors have advocated that learners space their study (Bahrick et al., 1993; Bjork, 1979, 1988, 1994; Bloom & Shuell, 1981; Cepeda, Pashler, Vul, Wixted, & Rohrer, 2006; Dempster, 1989; Pashler, Rohrer, Cepeda, & Carpenter, 2007; Reynolds & Glaser, 1964; Schmidt &…”

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“Research has demonstrated that this use of multiple exposures to a concept aids in transfer of knowledge and flexibility of thinking (Rohrer and Taylor 2007: 481).”
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Langbroek, S., Duchatelet, D., Brinke, D. J.-T., & Camp, G. (2024) · Frontiers in Education · doi:10.3389/feduc.2024.1340120 · Cited by 9
Using interleaved practice to foster spelling acquisition
Klimovich, M., & Richter, T. (2025) · Learning and Instruction · doi:10.1016/j.learninstruc.2025.102146 · Cited by 7
The Science of Learning and Its Applications
McDaniel, M. A., & Wooldridge, C. L. (2012) · Sage eBooks · doi:10.4135/9781452244006.n6 · Cited by 7
“Rohrer and Taylor (2007) found that interleaving instruction and subsequent practice on different types of mathematics problems (computing volumes of different solids) produced better application (retention) of the solution procedures to new problems than did blocking the problems, even though…”
Background
The Complexities of Learning Categories Through Comparisons
Higgins, E. J. (2016) · The Psychology of learning and motivation/The psychology of learning and motivation · doi:10.1016/bs.plm.2016.11.002 · Cited by 7
Different Impact of Perceptual Fluency and Schema Congruency on Sustainable Learning
Meier, B., & Muhmenthaler, M. C. (2021) · Sustainability · doi:10.3390/su13137040 · Cited by 8
Combining desirable difficulty learning strategies to address the amount-to-learn vs. time-to-learn imbalance in residency training
Nelson, A., & Eliasz, K. L. (2022) · Medical Teacher · doi:10.1080/0142159x.2022.2058389 · Cited by 7
“…multiple topics during a single study period (e.g. A-C-B-C-A-B) rather than focusing on one topic at a time (e.g. A-A-A-B-B-B-C-C-C) (Brown et al. 2014), and it has also shown benefits for learning both manual (Shewokis et al. 2017) and cognitive skills (Rohrer and Taylor 2007; Jacoby et al. 2010).”
Background
The Effects of Practice Schedules on the Acquisition and Retention of a Grapho-Motor Skill in Young-Adults
Ghanamah, R., & Adi‐Japha, E. (2023) · The Journal of Experimental Education · doi:10.1080/00220973.2023.2276920 · Cited by 9
“…knowledge and skills retention, for instance in tasks regarding verbal recall (Cepeda et al., 2006), English as a second language (Bird, 2011), reading (Seabrook et al., 2005), mathematics (Rohrer & Taylor, 2007), arm movements (Boutin et al., 2013), and dynamic balance (Shea et al., 2000).”
Remembering What We Learn.
Roediger, H. L., III, & McDermott, K. B. (2018) · Europe PMC (PubMed Central) · Cited by 7
How attention and knowledge modulate memory: The differential impact of cognitive conflicts on subsequent memory—A review of a decade of research
Muhmenthaler, M. C., Dubravac, M., & Meier, B. (2023) · Frontiers in Cognition · doi:10.3389/fcogn.2023.1125700 · Cited by 6
Awareness and Implementation of Evidence-Based Learning Strategies Among STEM Faculty
Wissman, K. T., & Leontyev, A. (2024) · The journal of college science teaching · doi:10.1080/0047231x.2024.2363118 · Cited by 7
Practice schedules in a video-based software training arrangement
van der Meij, H., & Maseland, J. (2021) · Social Sciences & Humanities Open · doi:10.1016/j.ssaho.2021.100133 · Cited by 6
DataStory™: an interactive sequential art approach for data science and artificial intelligence learning experiences
Maxwell, D. T., Meyer, S., & Bolch, C. (2021) · Innovation and Education · doi:10.1186/s42862-021-00015-x · Cited by 6
“According to Busch and Watson (2019), the principles of spacing and interleaving are well established in the literature (Cepeda et al., 2008; Rohrer & Taylor, 2007).”
Background
Graph Comprehension: Difficulties, Individual Differences, and Instruction.
Greenberg, R. A. (2014) · Cited by 6
SIMPLIFY ITS: An intelligent tutoring system based on cognitive diagnosis models and spaced learning
Villanueva, N. M., Costas, A. E., Hermida, D. F., & Rodríguez, A. C. (2018) · IEEE Global Engineering Education Conference (EDUCON) · doi:10.1109/educon.2018.8363440 · Cited by 5
“It is well established in the memory literature that interleaving concepts during learning process can help to improve the results obtained [62][63][64].”
Background
The role of executive function abilities in interleaved vs. blocked learning of science concepts
Park, J., Varma, K., & Varma, S. (2023) · Frontiers in Psychology · doi:10.3389/fpsyg.2023.1199682 · Cited by 5
“Early studies of blocked-by-concept versus interleaved-across-concepts instruction were conducted in the laboratory with undergraduate participants, and educational recommendations were extrapolated from their findings (e.g., Rohrer and Taylor, 2007).”
BackgroundMethodResultInfluential
Explaining procedures and interleaving practice in fraction arithmetic
Braithwaite, D. W., & Hall, G. J. (2023) · Learning and Instruction · doi:10.1016/j.learninstruc.2023.101854 · Cited by 7
Distributed Concept Reviews Improve Exam Performance
Blasiman, R. N. (2016) · Teaching of Psychology · doi:10.1177/0098628316677646 · Cited by 8
“Much of the research on the effectiveness of interleaved practice has been conducted in mathematics, with such problems as fractions and geometry (Mayfield & Chase, 2002; Rau, Aleven, & Rummel, 2013; Rohrer & Taylor, 2007; Taylor & Rohrer, 2010).”
Background
Preventing interference: Reordering complexity in the learning of new concepts.
Ziegler, E., Edelsbrunner, P. A., & Star, J. R. (2019) · Journal of Educational Psychology · doi:10.1037/edu0000347 · Cited by 6
Learning from graphically integrated 2D and 3D representations improves retention of neuroanatomy.
Naaz, F. (2012) · ThinkIR: The University of Louisville's Institutional Repository (University of Louisville) · doi:10.18297/etd/1034 · Cited by 5
A Meta-analytic Review of the Effectiveness of Spacing and Retrieval Practice for Mathematics Learning
Murray, E., Horner, A. J., & Göbel, S. M. (2025) · Educational Psychology Review · doi:10.1007/s10648-025-10035-1 · Cited by 4
“Several studies focused on learning a simple combinatorial procedure (Ebersbach & Barzagar Nazari, 2020b; Emeny et al., 2021; Rohrer & Taylor, 2006, 2007).”
Comparing the Effects of Concepts-First and Iterative Fraction Instruction Sequences
Running, K., Codding, R. S., Varma, S., Rao, V. N. V., & Wackerle-Hollman, A. K. (2023) · The Elementary School Journal · doi:10.1086/725730 · Cited by 4
Whether Interleaving or Blocking Is More Effective for Long-Term Learning Depends on One’s Learning Strategy
Little, J. L., & Nepangue, J. A. (2025) · Behavioral Sciences · doi:10.3390/bs15050662 · Cited by 5
“This benefit has been shown in a variety of domains, including the learning of artists’ styles (Kornell & Bjork, 2008), naturalistic stimuli (Wahlheim et al., 2011), math (Rohrer & Taylor, 2007), and simple motor skills (Wulf & Shea, 2002).”
Applying Interleaving Strategy of Learning Materials and Perceptual Modality to Address Secondary Students’ Need to Restore Cognitive Capacity
Chen, W., Chen, C., Li, B., & Zhang, J. (2022) · International Journal of Environmental Research and Public Health · doi:10.3390/ijerph19127505 · Cited by 4
“According to the discriminative-contrast hypothesis, the interleaved practice promotes the organizational and item-specific processing [11,35].”
Method
Effects of practice schedules in video tutorials for software training
van der Meij, H., & Nuketayeva, K. (2023) · Computers & Education · doi:10.1016/j.compedu.2023.104786 · Cited by 5
“Chemistry and Public Policy”: An Interdisciplinary Chemistry Course for Nonscience Majors
Fulkerson, G., Bos, I., Demlow, C., & Fynewever, H. (2024) · Journal of Chemical Education · doi:10.1021/acs.jchemed.3c01213 · Cited by 4
Building integrated number sense in adults and children: Comparing fractions-only training with cross-notation number line training
Schiller, L. K., Abreu‐Mendoza, R. A., Siegler, R. S., Rosenberg‐Lee, M., & Thompson, C. A. (2023) · Journal of Experimental Child Psychology · doi:10.1016/j.jecp.2024.106017 · Cited by 5

Authors: Rohrer, D., & Taylor, K.
Affiliations: University of South Florida (US)
Corresponding author: Rohrer, Doug
ORCID: Rohrer, Doug
Venue: Instructional Science
Publisher: Springer Science and Business Media LLC
Published: 2007-04-19
Volume: 35
Issue: 6
Pages: 481-498
ISSN: 0020-4277 (ISSN-L)
1573-1952
DOI: 10.1007/s11251-007-9015-8
OpenAlex: W1966731838
Cited by: 357
References: 33
Citations by year: 2026: 22 · 2025: 26 · 2024: 35 · 2023: 29 · 2022: 23 · 2021: 26 · 2020: 31 · 2019: 35 · 2018: 20 · 2017: 21 · 2016: 22 · 2015: 16 · 2014: 16 · 2013: 11 · 2012: 9
FWCI: 5.64
Type: journal article
Language: en
Open access: closed
Licence: www.springer.com/tdm (tdm)
Locations: Instructional Science (publishedVersion)
Digital Commons - University of South Florida (University of South Florida) (submittedVersion)
Topics: Social Sciences › Education › Mathematics Education and Pedagogy
Social Sciences › Psychology › Experimental and Cognitive Psychology › Visual and Cognitive Learning Processes
Social Sciences › Education › Mathematics Education and Teaching Techniques
Keywords: mathematics learning, practice questions, spaced practice, massed practice, mixed practice, blocked practice, mathematics textbooks

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The shuffling of mathematics problems improves learning

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