Beyond All Splits: Envisioning the Next Generation of Science on Mindfulness and Compassion in Schools for Students

“…suggestions made for the science of mindfulness in general (Davidson & Kaszniak, 2015; Dimidjian & Segal, 2015), and build upon work in the broader field of social and emotional learning (SEL) in schools around the study of program implementation (Durlak et al., 2011; Greenberg et al., 2017).”

“Given the complementarity of experimental and developmental approaches (see Table 3), we also hope to see greater cross-fertilization between these forms of research going forward (e.g., Bronfenbrenner & Morris, 2006).”

“…the program in the school; (b) the participants (those who deliver, those who receive the programs); and (c) the multilevel contexts of the school, neighborhood, district, and larger community context in which such programs were embedded was noted (see Baelen et al., 2022; Durlak & DuPre, 2008).”

“How are mindfulness and compassion related to other lines of development such as attachment relationships and social-emotional development (Bowlby, 1988; Shaver et al., 2007), self and identity development (Roeser & Peck, 2009; Vago & Silbersweig, 2012), or social-cognitive (Warren et al., 2021)…”

“Theoretical papers were written on the putative benefits of mindfulness in early childhood (Zelazo & Lyons, 2012), childhood and adolescence (Greenberg & Harris, 2012), and for educators (e.g., Jennings & Greenberg, 2009; Roeser et al., 2012).”

“The hypothesis is that through social interaction with an adult, the child develops meta-cognition, the capacity to “examine one’s own thinking from the perspective of the other and thereby re-describe one’s own cognitive representations of the world” (Thompson, 2007; p. 405).”

“The root image in relational meta-theories is often the cell or other organic/organismic metaphors that draw on meanings associated with living systems (e.g., Sameroff, 2010).”

“…to other lines of development such as attachment relationships and social-emotional development (Bowlby, 1988; Shaver et al., 2007), self and identity development (Roeser & Peck, 2009; Vago & Silbersweig, 2012), or social-cognitive (Warren et al., 2021) and moral development (Roeser et al., 2014)?”

“…Carsley et al., 2018; Felver et al., 2016; Klingbeil et al., 2017; Maynard et al., 2015; McKeering & Hwang, 2019; Semple et al., 2017; Weare, 2019; Zenner et al., 2014; Zoogman et al., 2015), as well as the authors’ own review of the research, Roeser et al. (2022) identified 54 studies for…”

“By around 2015, well-designed experimental studies were beginning to be published on the impacts of SBMPs on students during childhood (e.g., Schonert-Reichl et al., 2015) and adolescence (e.g., Kuyken et al., 2022; Raes et al., 2014); and on the impacts of mindfulness programs for school teachers…”

“Does mindfulness or compassion, like other lines of development, show a classic peak and decline shape—with the peak in early adulthood and decline thereafter (Hartshorne & Germine, 2015)?”

“These networks began to create a new subfield of science and educational practice (Garrison Institute, 2005; Meiklejohn et al., 2012; MLERN, 2012; Roeser & Eccles, 2015; Roeser & Zelazo, 2012; Weare, 2013).”

“Relatedly, attention to issues of diversity, equity, and inclusion in program design and evaluation is critically important (e.g., Jagers et al., 2019).”

“…improvements that we recommend for experimental studies of programs in schools parallel suggestions made for the science of mindfulness in general (Davidson & Kaszniak, 2015; Dimidjian & Segal, 2015), and build upon work in the broader field of social and emotional learning (SEL) in schools…”

“Based on a series of research reviews conducted by scholars in the field (Baelen et al., 2019; Carsley et al., 2018; Felver et al., 2016; Klingbeil et al., 2017; Maynard et al., 2015; McKeering & Hwang, 2019; Semple et al., 2017; Weare, 2019; Zenner et al., 2014; Zoogman et al., 2015), as well as the authors’ own revi…”

“…experimental studies were beginning to be published on the impacts of SBMPs on students during childhood (e.g., Schonert-Reichl et al., 2015) and adolescence (e.g., Kuyken et al., 2022; Raes et al., 2014); and on the impacts of mindfulness programs for school teachers (e.g., Jennings et al., 2017).”

“In addition, consistent with work in SEL, experimental students of program impacts need to integrate implementation science into the study of impacts to understand how and why programs work or do not work (Bryk, 2016; Durlak & DuPre, 2008; Greenberg et al., 2017), and to focus on the fit of programs within the wider e…”

“Theoretical papers were written on the putative benefits of mindfulness in early childhood (Zelazo & Lyons, 2012), childhood and adolescence (Greenberg & Harris, 2012), and for educators (e.g., Jennings & Greenberg, 2009; Roeser et al., 2012).”

“Here, notions like the “fit” between the developmental and cultural needs of children and adolescents, and these kinds of programs and practices, become focal, as do related issues of motivation and engagement on the part of students to engage with such programs and practices (e.g., Walton & Yeager, 2020; Yeager et al…”

“This social process is theoretically related to reflection and the reiterative reprocessing of representations of self, others, and world (Zelazo, 2015), as well as the related capacity to observe one’s mind from the stance of a witness (Engler, 1984).”

“Theoretical papers were written on the putative benefits of mindfulness in early childhood (Zelazo & Lyons, 2012), childhood and adolescence (Greenberg & Harris, 2012), and for educators (e.g., Jennings & Greenberg, 2009; Roeser et al., 2012).”

“Theoretical papers were written on the putative benefits of mindfulness in early childhood (Zelazo & Lyons, 2012), childhood and adolescence (Greenberg & Harris, 2012), and for educators (e.g., Jennings & Greenberg, 2009; Roeser et al., 2012).”

“Based on a series of research reviews conducted by scholars in the field (Baelen et al., 2019; Carsley et al., 2018; Felver et al., 2016; Klingbeil et al., 2017; Maynard et al., 2015; McKeering & Hwang, 2019; Semple et al., 2017; Weare, 2019; Zenner et al., 2014; Zoogman et al., 2015), as well as…”

“Research on social and emotional learning programs for students suggests factors at each of these levels are important moderators of program impacts (Bierman et al., 2010; Cramer et al., 2021; McCormick et al., 2015).”

“Based on a series of research reviews conducted by scholars in the field (Baelen et al., 2019; Carsley et al., 2018; Felver et al., 2016; Klingbeil et al., 2017; Maynard et al., 2015; McKeering & Hwang, 2019; Semple et al., 2017; Weare, 2019; Zenner et al., 2014; Zoogman et al., 2015), as well as the authors’ own revi…”

“Based on a series of research reviews conducted by scholars in the field (Baelen et al., 2019; Carsley et al., 2018; Felver et al., 2016; Klingbeil et al., 2017; Maynard et al., 2015; McKeering & Hwang, 2019; Semple et al., 2017; Weare, 2019; Zenner et al., 2014; Zoogman et al., 2015), as well as…”

“…between the developmental and cultural needs of children and adolescents, and these kinds of programs and practices, become focal, as do related issues of motivation and engagement on the part of students to engage with such programs and practices (e.g., Walton & Yeager, 2020; Yeager et al., 2018).”

“…for experimental studies of programs in schools parallel suggestions made for the science of mindfulness in general (Davidson & Kaszniak, 2015; Dimidjian & Segal, 2015), and build upon work in the broader field of social and emotional learning (SEL) in schools around the study of program…”

“…experimental studies were beginning to be published on the impacts of SBMPs on students during childhood (e.g., Schonert-Reichl et al., 2015) and adolescence (e.g., Kuyken et al., 2022; Raes et al., 2014); and on the impacts of mindfulness programs for school teachers (e.g., Jennings et al., 2017).”

“…to other lines of development such as attachment relationships and social-emotional development (Bowlby, 1988; Shaver et al., 2007), self and identity development (Roeser & Peck, 2009; Vago & Silbersweig, 2012), or social-cognitive (Warren et al., 2021) and moral development (Roeser et al., 2014)?”

“…among developmental scientists, split assumptive meta-theories in the study of human development show scientific shortcomings with regard to understanding development by splitting apart processes that are actually interdependent and holistic in nature (e.g., Lerner & Overton, 2008; Zelazo, 2013).”

“2; Rogoff et al., 2018; Sameroff, 2010; Tharp & Gallimore, 1991).”

“…conducted by scholars in the field (Baelen et al., 2019; Carsley et al., 2018; Felver et al., 2016; Klingbeil et al., 2017; Maynard et al., 2015; McKeering & Hwang, 2019; Semple et al., 2017; Weare, 2019; Zenner et al., 2014; Zoogman et al., 2015), as well as the authors’ own review of the…”

“…the elements of mindfulness as hypothetically developing through attuned interactions between a caring and mindful adult (e.g., a more knowledgeable other), a secure and curious child (e.g., the novice), and the cultural practice of joint attention in everyday life (e.g., Shaver et al., 2007).”

“Based on a series of research reviews conducted by scholars in the field (Baelen et al., 2019; Carsley et al., 2018; Felver et al., 2016; Klingbeil et al., 2017; Maynard et al., 2015; McKeering & Hwang, 2019; Semple et al., 2017; Weare, 2019; Zenner et al., 2014; Zoogman et al., 2015), as well as the authors’ own revi…”

“These networks began to create a new subfield of science and educational practice (Garrison Institute, 2005; Meiklejohn et al., 2012; MLERN, 2012; Roeser & Eccles, 2015; Roeser & Zelazo, 2012; Weare, 2013).”

“…and mental health settings to address physical and mental health problems, and thus the framing of mindfulness as a clinical-therapeutic approach to alleviating suffering became a key characteristic of the emerging science of mindfulness generally (Davidson & Dahl, 2018; Van Dam et al., 2018).”

“The second limitation noted was a relative lack of developmental conceptualization and measurement of mindfulness in students across different ages, with different methodologies (e.g., Goodman et al., 2017).”

“Expanding basic developmental science to create a coherent description and explanation of the development of mindfulness and compassion in schools and other social contexts during childhood and adolescence would advance this area of science (see Roeser & Eccles, 2015; Spinrad & Eisenberg, 2017).”

“Rather, it is an effort to go beyond all splits in assumptions to advance scientific understanding (Overton, 2007).”

“This discourse was contrasted with a second, less recognized academic discourse they termed “mindfulness as education” (Ergas & Hadar, 2019—see Table 1).”

“Research on social and emotional learning programs for students suggests factors at each of these levels are important moderators of program impacts (Bierman et al., 2010; Cramer et al., 2021; McCormick et al., 2015).”

“…programs for students focused primarily on themes of kindness, empathy, self-compassion, or compassion given the nascent nature of this work (e.g., Jazaieri, 2018; Lavelle et al., 2017) is important to note here and is discussed below in future directions for research below. classroom teacher),…”

“Based on a series of research reviews conducted by scholars in the field (Baelen et al., 2019; Carsley et al., 2018; Felver et al., 2016; Klingbeil et al., 2017; Maynard et al., 2015; McKeering & Hwang, 2019; Semple et al., 2017; Weare, 2019; Zenner et al., 2014; Zoogman et al., 2015), as well as the authors’ own revi…”

“Some have raised concerns about how the individualistic framing can promote a view among novices that contemplative practices are essentially private, engaged in alone, and about self-help (Condon & Makransky, 2020).”

“In the main, the research to date has not focused on integrating assessments of what happened inside the “black box” of the program and its implementation with the study of program impacts (see Baelen et al., 2022).”

“Gradually, the new millennium saw a wider cultural mainstreaming of mindfulness in many countries (Kucinskas, 2018).”

“Given that experimental studies are an important part of the educational and prevention-in-schools research landscapes (Raudenbush & Schwartz, 2020), the research brief focused solely on experimental studies that used randomized control or quasi-experimental study designs to ascertain causal…”

“…on the proximal processes that interface between such presumed splits (e.g., persons vs. environments), processes that range across multiple levels from cells to society or neurons to neighborhoods in the development of qualities like mindfulness (e.g., Roeser et al., 2018; Zelazo, 2013).”

“We know little about the implementation of mindfulness as a school-wide practice, where it is integrated into the culture and life of a whole school and involves both teachers and students (e.g., Sheinman et al., 2018).”

“…and developmental research in schools more fully on whole persons and their identities, social relationships and interaction, cultural practices, and holistic school settings in shaping mindful and compassionate persons in different countries and school systems (e.g., Colaianne et al., 2019).”

“In addition, the MYRIAD project raised important questions as to whether or not teachers in general are able to competently teach SBMPs (Crane et al., 2020).”

“Expanding basic developmental science to create a coherent description and explanation of the development of mindfulness and compassion in schools and other social contexts during childhood and adolescence would advance this area of science (see Roeser & Eccles, 2015; Spinrad & Eisenberg, 2017).”

“…measurement work would improve our understanding of the mediating roles that mindfulness and compassion play in program impacts, and would advance our understanding of how to measure these constructs as embodied by teachers or those who implement programs in schools (e.g., Rickert et al., 2019).”

“Specifically, empirical insights and answers to these questions can inform the optimization of programs through the identification of key proximal processes in families and schools that produce mindful and compassionate individuals (or not, e.g., Semenov & Zelazo, 2019).”

“And so, despite some evidence of promise and little evidence of harm (see also Filipe et al., 2021), the brief revealed many unanswered questions, scientific limitations, and a limited ability to translate the science in ways relevant to the concerns of educational policy makers, leaders, and…”

“Beginning around the year 2000, there was a rapid increase in funded research grants and published research studies on mindfulness in the medical and clinical sciences (Bernstein et al., 2019).”

“Research on social and emotional learning programs for students suggests factors at each of these levels are important moderators of program impacts (Bierman et al., 2010; Cramer et al., 2021; McCormick et al., 2015).”

“Finally, it may turn out that universal or school-wide programs are only viable strategies in certain contexts, and not at scale, and that alternative contexts like retreats or camps are useful to study in the future (e.g., Galla, 2017).”

“…of mindfulness may lead to an over-emphasis in programs on the individual causes of human suffering within the mind, and thus promote the “privileging of highly individualized descriptions of suffering and health, thereby eschewing social and systemic causes of suffering” (Lavelle, 2016, p. 233).”

“…of research reviews conducted by scholars in the field (Baelen et al., 2019; Carsley et al., 2018; Felver et al., 2016; Klingbeil et al., 2017; Maynard et al., 2015; McKeering & Hwang, 2019; Semple et al., 2017; Weare, 2019; Zenner et al., 2014; Zoogman et al., 2015), as well as the authors’…”

“Instead, scholars like Forbes (2016) point to a need to promote the social aims of mindfulness practice for students by embedding such practice “within critical, integral programs that uncover and resist dominant ideologies and institutions in which we swim and to consciously help us heal and…”

“…to other lines of development such as attachment relationships and social-emotional development (Bowlby, 1988; Shaver et al., 2007), self and identity development (Roeser & Peck, 2009; Vago & Silbersweig, 2012), or social-cognitive (Warren et al., 2021) and moral development (Roeser et al., 2014)?”

“…from philosophy of science perspectives focuses on the limitations of certain dualistic and mechanistic meta-theoretical assumptions and views underlying current research on mindfulness in Contemplative Science generally, and in education specifically (e.g., Roeser, 2016; Thompson, 2017, 2020).”

“…focused primarily on themes of kindness, empathy, self-compassion, or compassion given the nascent nature of this work (e.g., Jazaieri, 2018; Lavelle et al., 2017) is important to note here and is discussed below in future directions for research below. classroom teacher), whether the…”

“A more recent review found that 43% of studies did not report on the SES of the participating students or the local community (Roeser et al., 2022a).”

“Next we address the need for a more refined approach to SBMP development based in developmental science (Roeser et al., 2023), and in partnership with educators, students, and their families who understand community needs and contextual factors that may be barriers or facilitators to SBMP implementation.”

“Healthy social interactions have indeed been suggested to be necessary for the motivation to learn and develop intrapersonal higher-order mental processes, like mindfulness (Roeser et al., 2023).”

“1 3 Roeser et al. (2023) take the critique further into the real world and bring together the argument, being made in many quarters, that the mindfulness in education model has unseen and real life if unintended consequences for individuals and for our understanding of the purpose of education.”

“…skills, and these skills in turn show some promise for reducing feelings of stress, anxiety, depression, and self-harm, and supporting healthy relationships (Britton et al., 2014; Dunning et al., 2019; Kander et al., 2024; Kang et al., 2018; Roeser et al., 2023; Zenner et al., 2014).”

“In the education sector, the creation and implementation of school-based mindfulness programs in preschool, primary, and secondary school settings have increased during the past two decades (Roeser et al., 2023 ).”

“In contrast, relational meta-theories “are ‘post-Cartesian’ and aim towards holism, non-linear and non-additive organization, and synthesis” (Roeser et al., 2023).”

“…evidence shows that school-based mindfulness programmes still hold promise as an effective method to improve adolescent mental health, but results depend on how it is taught, by whom, and how well programmes are designed to engage young people (Burrows, 2022; Roeser et al., 2023; Weare, 2023).”

“Indeed, Roeser et al. (2023) describe mindfulness as a social practice that develops organically through interaction with a more knowledgeable other.”

“More recently, Roeser et al. (2023a) have built upon these distinctions, among many other valuable sources, to offer a much exhaustive and compelling vision for the next generation of science on mindfulness and compassion in schools for students.”

“…some authors consider that a more comprehensive and long-term approach can perhaps be more effective for helping teenagers with their mental health (Roeser et al., 2022; Weare, 2023); this approach should include the support of educational agents (e.g., counselors) who can identify cases that may…”

“Even commentators more sympathetic to mindfulness in education concede that existing research has only found moderate benefits in certain areas with more research required in others (e.g. Roeser et al., 2023).”

“Roeser et al., (2022b) have recently suggested that SBMPs need to move beyond the dualistic split between the intra-and interpersonal modes of teaching and incorporate both.”

“Roeser et al. (2023) discussed the integration into educational programming of contemplation-related virtues such as compassion.”

“Roeser et al. (2022) proposed moving beyond the division between research on mindfulness and compassion in schools and instead advocating for an integrated approach to studying mindfulness and compassion.”

“Finally, as Roeser et al. (2022) state, few studies have provided scientific evidence on the effectiveness of mindfulness interventions at schools in reducing emotions such as anger and aggression or in improving well-being, and this would be an area for further research.”

“…reviews indicate that these interventions are effective in promoting multiple constructs associated with adolescent psychological well-being and positive functioning (Felver et al., 2016; Garro et al., 2023; Phan et al., 2022; Roeser et al., 2022; Tortella et al., 2021; Zenner et al., 2014).”

“…views and empirical findings of a growing body of scientific literature highlight the limits of dividing compassion by its orientation toward self or others (e.g., Condon & Makransky, 2020; Josipovic, 2016; Lutz et al., 2004; Quaglia et al., 2021, 2022; Roeser et al., 2023; Sahdra et al., 2023).”

“…may be Future research should thus consider applying these fi ndings in conjunction with others related to MBP implementation science (Baelen et al., 2023; Felver et al., 2023; Roeser et al., 2023) to explore what recommended components are most essential at different developmental time periods.”

“While existing research points to the usefulness of mindfulness programs designed for children (e.g., Baelen et al., 2022; Felver et al., 2022; Roeser et al., 2023), some researchers caution that future research should consider the effects of one-size-fits-all SBMPs, which cannot meet children’s…”

“This view acknowledges that the development of contemplative qualities is not “split” from the social context, but rather, occurs as an interconnected process with the social context (Overton, 1998; Roeser et al., 2023a).”

“current enthusiasm for implementing SBMPs appears to have outpaced rigorous evaluation efforts (Felver et al., 2016; Roeser et al., 2023), as currently, we do not fully understand for whom and under what conditions SBMPs yield effects (Emerson et al., 2020; Feagans Gould et al., 2016).”

“…heterogeneity of mindfulness practices (Felver et al., 2023) may correspondingly result in various effects to different components of mindfulness (Roeser et al., 2023), unidi-mensional measurements of mindfulness may be inadequate to capture the consequences and inner mechanisms of mindfulness…”

“In line with Roeser et al .”