Conceptual and methodological issues in research on mindfulness and meditation.
Open accessAbstract
Both basic science and clinical research on mindfulness, meditation, and related constructs have dramatically increased in recent years. However, interpretation of these research results has been challenging. The present article addresses unique conceptual and methodological problems posed by research in this area. Included among the key topics is the role of first-person experience and how it can be best studied, the challenges posed by intervention research designs in which true double-blinding is not possible, the nature of control and comparison conditions for research that includes mindfulness or other meditation-based interventions, issues in the adequate description of mindfulness and related trainings and interventions, the question of how mindfulness can be measured, questions regarding what can and cannot be inferred from self-report measures, and considerations regarding the structure of study design and data analyses. Most of these topics are germane to both basic and clinical research studies and have important bearing on the future scientific understanding of mindfulness and meditation.
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ACM was designed to control for nonspecific aspects of meditation while excluding explicit mindfulness training.
“ACM was designed to control for nonspecific aspects of meditation—such as dedicated self‐care time, structured practice, and expectation of benefit—while excluding explicit mindfulness training (Davidson & Kaszniak, 2015; Kinser & Robins, 2013).”
From The effects of mindfulness meditation on burnout in clinical genetic counselors: A three-arm randomized controlled trial (2026) · cites this paper as Davidson & Kaszniak, 2015
Section IX (Comparison and control groups; page unavailable) describes HEP as a comparison intervention matched to MBSR on group format, instructor training, expected benefit, and daily practice. Its intervention table lists non-mindfulness activities for HEP. The copy does not identify ACM or establish that ACM was designed this way, so the citation supports the control-design rationale but not the claim about that specific intervention. (LLM, conf=0.84)
Experimental — accuracy not yet measuredComparisons to a passive control can both overestimate effect sizes and identify effectiveness erroneously.
“These findings need to be interpreted with caution, given that they arise from secondary analyses, and because it has been well demonstrated that comparisons to a passive control can both overestimate effect sizes and identify effectiveness erroneously (Davidson & Kaszniak, 2015; Goldberg et al., 2022; Kinser & Robins, 2013).”
From The effects of mindfulness meditation on burnout in clinical genetic counselors: A three-arm randomized controlled trial (2026) · cites this paper as Davidson & Kaszniak, 2015
Section IX (Comparison and control groups; page unavailable) says wait-list controls cannot establish that clinical change is due to mindfulness, because participants know their assignments and differential demand characteristics are likely. It also reports outcomes on which mindfulness did not outperform an active comparison. These passages support the risk of erroneously identifying a mindfulness-specific effect, but do not explicitly establish that passive controls overestimate effect sizes. (LLM, conf=0.82)
Experimental — accuracy not yet measuredParticipants were not blinded regarding which group (MBSR or ACT) they belonged to, but were blinded to which treatment group was the focus of the study and the different expected effects of each group.
“Participants of the study were not blinded regarding which group (MBSR or ACT) they belong to.They were, however, blinded to which treatment group was the focus of the study and the different expected effects of each group as recommended by Davidson & Kaszniak (2015).”
From Effects of mindfulness meditation and Acceptance and commitment therapy in patients with obstructive sleep apnea with residual excessive sleepiness: A randomized controlled pilot study (2023) · cites this paper as Davidson & Kaszniak (2015)
In “IX. Comparison and control groups” (page unavailable), Davidson and Kaszniak say participants cannot be blinded to their assigned group but recommend blinding them to which intervention is the focus of the research. The section does not recommend blinding participants to the different expected effects of the groups. The MBSR–ACT study’s reported procedure is the citing authors’ own, not a procedure documented in this source. (LLM, conf=0.83)
Experimental — accuracy not yet measuredIn mindfulness-based programs, participants are explicitly introduced to concepts and practices that overlap with the items they later complete, which increases the risk of demand characteristics and responses shaped by perceived expectations.
“In mindfulness-based programs, participants are explicitly introduced to concepts and practices that overlap with the items they later complete, which increases the risk of demand characteristics and responses shaped by perceived expectations (Davidson & Kaszniak, 2015; Ghanbari Noshari et al., 2023).”
From Measuring mindfulness: A systematic review and evaluation of self-report mindfulness scales (2026) · cites this paper as Davidson & Kaszniak, 2015
Split into 2 atoms — 0 confirmed, 2 partially supported, 0 disputed, 0 misattributed, 0 unverifiable. Expand the claim to see per-atom verdicts.
Experimental — accuracy not yet measuredNo gold standard active control for mindfulness meditation exists.
“However, these have been challenging to design and no gold standard active control for MM exists (Davidson & Kaszniak, 2015; Kinser & Robins, 2013).”
From The effects of mindfulness meditation on burnout in clinical genetic counselors: A three-arm randomized controlled trial (2026) · cites this paper as Davidson & Kaszniak, 2015
A significant limitation of mindfulness meditation research is the reliance on passive control groups, which fail to control for nonspecific factors such as expectancy effects or structured self-care time.
“Despite these promising findings, a significant limitation of MM research is the reliance on passive control groups, which fail to control for nonspecific factors such as expectancy effects or structured self‐care time (Bishop, 2002; Davidson & Kaszniak, 2015; Goldberg et al., 2017, 2019).”
From The effects of mindfulness meditation on burnout in clinical genetic counselors: A three-arm randomized controlled trial (2026) · cites this paper as Davidson & Kaszniak, 2015
Both fields of psychedelics and meditation are marked by strong bias effects, so reported beneficial effects can be overestimated.
“Both fields of psychedelics and meditation are marked by strong bias effects [119, 120], so reported in studies beneficial effects can be overestimated.”
From Mindfulness meditation and psychedelics: potential synergies and commonalities (2023) · cites this paper as [120]
These studies suffer from methodological limitations and thus the effects may be overstated, especially as both fields of psychedelics and meditation are characterised by strong bias effects.
“However, these studies suffer from methodological limitations and thus the effects may be overstated, especially as both fields of psychedelics and meditation are characterised by strong bias effects (11, 173).”
From Examining the Potential Synergistic Effects Between Mindfulness Training and Psychedelic-Assisted Therapy (2021) · cites this paper as [173]
Non-specific factors are frequently treated mainly as confounds in MBI mechanism research and as reasons to strengthen comparison conditions to isolate specific effects.
“Yet, non-specific factors are often viewed primarily as a confound in studies of MBI mechanisms (but see33–35) and used as motivation for increasing the rigor of comparison conditions to isolate the specific effects of MBIs28,36–38.”
From A common factors perspective on mindfulness-based interventions (2022) · cites this paper as [37]
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BackgroundSham tDCS: A hidden source of variability? Reflections for further blinded, controlled trials
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Emotion regulation in patients with somatic symptom and related disorders: a systematic review
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Outstanding Challenges in Scientific Research on Mindfulness and Meditation
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Is mindfulness research methodology improving over time? A systematic review
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Self-citationMindfulness training for smoking cessation: a meta-analysis of randomized-controlled trials
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Mindfulness training in the workplace: Exploring its scope and outcomes
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Let it be: mindful acceptance down-regulates pain and negative emotion
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Is mindfulness associated with interpersonal forgiveness?
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Goldberg, S. B., Imhoff-Smith, T., Bolt, D. M., Wilson-Mendenhall, C. D., Dahl, C. J., Davidson, R. J., & Rosenkranz, M. A. (2020) · JMIR Mental Health · doi:10.2196/23825 · Cited by 97 · see citing works
“In the scientific literature, mindfulness can refer to a mental state, trait, or faculty amenable to training [44-47].”
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Measuring Mindfulness in Youth: Review of Current Assessments, Challenges, and Future Directions
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“ACQ scores have been found to correlate with objective measures of attentional control, which further demonstrates the scale's reliability (Derryberry & Reed, 2002).”
InfluentialA Systematic Review of Mindfulness Interventions on Psychophysiological Responses to Acute Stress
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Increasing participant motivation reduces rates of intentional and unintentional mind wandering
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The epistemic and pragmatic value of non-action: a predictive coding perspective on meditation
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Goldberg, S. B., Imhoff-Smith, T., Bolt, D. M., Wilson-Mendenhall, C. D., Dahl, C. J., Davidson, R. J., & Rosenkranz, M. A. (2020) · doi:10.2196/preprints.23825 · Cited by 97 · see citing works
Self-citationLong-term mindfulness training is associated with reliable differences in resting respiration rate
Wielgosz, J., Schuyler, B. S., Lutz, A., & Davidson, R. J. (2016) · Scientific Reports · doi:10.1038/srep27533 · Cited by 114 · see citing works
Self-citationCoping With COVID-19: Mindfulness-Based Approaches for Mitigating Mental Health Crisis
Antonova, E., Schlosser, K., Pandey, R., & Kumari, V. (2021) · Frontiers in Psychiatry · doi:10.3389/fpsyt.2021.563417 · Cited by 89 · see citing works
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Stress and Release: Case Studies of Teacher Resilience Following a Mindfulness-Based Intervention
Schussler, D. L., DeWeese, A., Rasheed, D. S., DeMauro, A. A., Brown, J. L., Greenberg, M. T., & Jennings, P. A. (2018) · American Journal of Education · doi:10.1086/699808 · Cited by 96 · see citing works
Ribeiro, L., Atchley, R. M., & Oken, B. S. (2018) · Mindfulness · doi:10.1007/s12671-017-0781-3 · Cited by 91 · see citing works
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Adding historical depth to definitions of mindfulness
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Be(com)ing Real: a Multi-source and an Intervention Study on Mindfulness and Authentic Leadership
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What do people mean when they talk about mindfulness?
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Mindfulness in Daily Life: a Multidimensional Approach
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A Framework for the Empirical Investigation of Mindfulness Meditative Development
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Does mindfulness meditation increase empathy? An experiment
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A Critical Analysis on Characterizing the Meditation Experience Through the Electroencephalogram
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A common factors perspective on mindfulness-based interventions
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A Meta-Analysis of Mindfulness-Based Therapies for Insomnia and Sleep Disturbance
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Rosenkranz, M. A., Dunne, J. D., & Davidson, R. J. (2019) · Current Opinion in Psychology · doi:10.1016/j.copsyc.2018.12.022 · Cited by 81 · see citing works
Self-citationA balanced view of mindfulness at work
Choi, E., Gruman, J. A., & Leonard, C. (2021) · Organizational Psychology Review · doi:10.1177/20413866211036930 · Cited by 73 · see citing works
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“…improvements that we recommend for experimental studies of programs in schools parallel suggestions made for the science of mindfulness in general (Davidson & Kaszniak, 2015; Dimidjian & Segal, 2015), and build upon work in the broader field of social and emotional learning (SEL) in schools…”
Chaix, R., Fagny, M., Cosín‐Tomás, M., Alvarez-López, M., Lemée, L., Regnault, B., Davidson, R. J., Antoine Lutz, A., & Kaliman, P. (2019) · Brain Behavior and Immunity · doi:10.1016/j.bbi.2019.11.003 · Cited by 74 · see citing works
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Mindfulness-based programs and school adjustment: A systematic review and meta-analysis
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The Importance of Self-Reflection and Awareness for Human Development in Hard Times
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Research note: A randomized investigation of evangelical Christian accommodative mindfulness.
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The impact of virtual reality meditation on college students’ exam performance
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Hoge, E. A., Acabchuk, R. L., Kimmel, H. J., Moitra, E., Britton, W. B., Dumais, T., Ferrer, R. A., Lazar, S. W., Vago, D. R., Lipsky, J., et al. (2020) · Mindfulness · doi:10.1007/s12671-020-01561-w · Cited by 62 · see citing works
- Authors
- Davidson, R. J., & Kaszniak, A. W.
- Affiliations
- University of Wisconsin–Madison (US)
- University of Arizona (US)
- ORCID
- Davidson, Richard J.
- Venue
- American Psychologist
- Published
- 2015-10
- Volume
- 70
- Issue
- 7
- Pages
- 581-592
- ISSN
- 0003-066X (ISSN-L)
- 1935-990X
- PMC
- PMC4627495
- OpenAlex
- W2406560806
- Cited by
- 773
- References
- 70
- Citations by year
- 2026: 44 · 2025: 69 · 2024: 69 · 2023: 87 · 2022: 86 · 2021: 91 · 2020: 86 · 2019: 87 · 2018: 66 · 2017: 50 · 2016: 30 · 2015: 4 · 2012: 1
- FWCI
- 62.09
- Type
- journal article
- Language
- en
- Open access
- hybrid
- doi.org
- Locations
- American Psychologist (publishedVersion, other-oa)
- PubMed (publishedVersion)
- PubMed Central (acceptedVersion)
- Funders
- National Center for Complementary and Integrative Health (P01AT004952)
- Topics
- Social Sciences › Psychology › Clinical Psychology › Mindfulness and Compassion Interventions
- Social Sciences › Health › Religion, Spirituality, and Psychology
- Social Sciences › Psychology › Clinical Psychology › Psychotherapy Techniques and Applications
- Keywords
- mindfulness, meditation, first-person experience, meditation-based interventions, control conditions, mindfulness measurement, self-report measures, research design, data analysis, conceptual difficulties
- MeSH terms
- Clinical Trials as Topic, Humans, Research Design, Meditation, Biomedical Research, Mindfulness
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