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Nicotine: Sporting Friend or Foe? A Review of Athlete Use, Performance Consequences and Other Considerations
Open accessAbstract
Nicotine use amongst athletes is high and increasing, especially in team sports. This narrative review examines the rationale behind its use and evidence of its effect on physical performance, and considers important factors that should determine future research efforts. To date, ten studies have assessed muscular strength and power, sub- or maximal endurance and high-intensity exercise when nicotine (medication) or smokeless tobacco was used as an intervention. Two studies observed an ergogenic effect, one an ergolytic with the remaining seven reporting no change. These studies have notable limitations and confounding factors that include participant tolerance to nicotine, interindividual responses, the nicotine delivery system used and failure to adhere to rigorous experimental/scientific design. Further research is encouraged to address these limitations and determine the extent to which anti-doping and governing bodies should consider promoting, coordinating and monitoring any effort against nicotine and nicotine-containing substances in sports.
Overview
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TL;DR
This narrative review examines nicotine use among athletes and the evidence for its effects on physical performance, noting that WADA only monitors nicotine and that use is high in several team, strength, and winter sports. Across ten performance studies yielding 16 measures, most showed no effect, with a small number ergogenic or ergolytic, and the evidence base is limited by methodological issues.
Key findings
- Nicotine is not prohibited by WADA; it was placed on WADA’s Monitoring Program in 2012. Active in-competition consumption of nicotine/nicotine-containing substances is reported in approximately 25–50% of athletes in professional team/strength sports (e.g., American football, ice hockey, wrestling, bobsleigh, gymnastics, rugby, skiing).
- Urine analyses: at the 2009 men’s World Ice-Hockey Championships (n = 72), traces of nicotine or its metabolites were present in every sample, with active use in at least 36% (metabolites in 53%). A 1-year Swiss laboratory monitoring study of 2185 samples across 43 sports found traces in 23% and active consumption in 15%; cumulative exposure >25% occurred in American football (56%), ice hockey (32%), wrestling (32%), bobsleigh (31%), gymnastics (29%), rugby (28%), and skiing (26%).
- Ten studies assessed performance with nicotine or smokeless tobacco, yielding 16 performance measures: 12 showed no significant effect, 2 an ergogenic effect, and 2 an ergolytic effect. At the study level, the abstract reports two ergogenic, one ergolytic, and seven no-change studies.
- Nicotine’s proposed modes of action include psychostimulatory effects via central reward pathways and sympathomimetic effects via catecholamine release; it is a nicotinic acetylcholine receptor agonist.
Methods
- Narrative review of quality-assured, peer-reviewed publications available through the end of June 2017, primarily using PubMed and Google Scholar, with manual checking of second- and third-order reference lists. Studies were excluded when interventions exclusively involved tobacco smoking or smokers.
- Ten included studies had performance outcomes using larger muscle mass/whole-body exercise; five used smokeless tobacco and five used nicotine (transdermal, sublingual tablet, chewing gum, vaporiser, lozenge). Average sample size was 17 (SD = 9, median = 16, range = 9–40); seven studies used males only, none exclusively females; participants were young (mean age ≤25 years), healthy, recreationally/competitively active but not (sub-)elite; seven studies included nicotine-naïve participants.
- Main analysis was a narrative synthesis subdivided into muscular strength and power, submaximal/maximal endurance, and high-intensity exercise/intermittent sprints.
Limitations
- Stated: the current evidence base is limited in both quantity and quality; notable limitations and confounders include participant tolerance to nicotine, interindividual responses, the nicotine delivery system used, and failure to adhere to rigorous experimental/scientific design.
- Stated: future research should address double-blind placebo-controlled designs with manipulation checks, criterion validity of performance tests, expert performers, female athletes, tolerant users (withdrawal/re-introduction), naïve users (desensitization), and environmental/diet interactions.
- Evident from the text: samples were small (average 17, range 9–40), mostly male, young, healthy, and not (sub-)elite; NRT studies used fixed doses; only five performance studies reported side effects; some studies did not explicitly report performance time/work; and cross-sectional prevalence data are self-reported and cannot distinguish nicotine sources.
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Claims the paper makes
0 Valid · 3 Not valid · 75 Not checked · 26 Own results and interpretations
In the paper
“Nicotine is available over-the-counter and use is widespread amongst professional team/strength sports (e.g. American football, ice hockey, wrestling, bobsleigh, gymnastics, rugby, skiing) whereby active consumption of nicotine and nicotine-containing substances in-competition occurs in approximately 25–50% of such athletes.”
§ Nicotine: Sporting Friend or Foe? A Review of Athlete Use, Performance Consequences and Other Considerations > Key Points
What the sources say
- Not checked yetcites [39] Marclay F, Grata E, Perrenoud L, Saugy M. A one-year monitoring of nicotine use in sport: frontier between potential performance enhancement and addiction issues. Forensic Sci Int. 2011;213(1–3):73–84. source
plain- Asserted: passes — The authors put it forward as true.
- Checkable: passes — It can be checked against evidence.
- Load-bearing: unclear — It is unclear whether the paper’s conclusions depend on it.
- Based: passes — The paper gives a reason why it holds.
The paper states this without a source or data behind it here, so there is nothing to check it against. The quote shows it is in the paper.
In the paper
“Nicotine use amongst athletes is high and increasing, especially in team sports.”
§ Nicotine: Sporting Friend or Foe? A Review of Athlete Use, Performance Consequences and Other Considerations > Abstract
plainstates an association- Asserted: passes — The authors put it forward as true.
- Checkable: passes — It can be checked against evidence.
- Load-bearing: unclear — It is unclear whether the paper’s conclusions depend on it.
- Based: unclear — It is unclear why the paper says it holds.
A result the paper states — it cites no source for it, so there is none to check. The quote shows it is in the paper.
In the paper
“To date, ten studies have assessed muscular strength and power, sub- or maximal endurance and high-intensity exercise when nicotine (medication) or smokeless tobacco was used as an intervention.”
§ Nicotine: Sporting Friend or Foe? A Review of Athlete Use, Performance Consequences and Other Considerations > Abstract
plain- Asserted: passes — The authors put it forward as true.
- Checkable: passes — It can be checked against evidence.
- Load-bearing: passes — The paper’s conclusions depend on it.
- Based: passes — The paper gives a reason why it holds.
In the paper
“Nicotine is available over-the-counter and use is widespread amongst professional team/strength sports (e.g. American football, ice hockey, wrestling, bobsleigh, gymnastics, rugby, skiing) whereby active consumption of nicotine and nicotine-containing substances in-competition occurs in approximately 25–50% of such athletes.”
§ Nicotine: Sporting Friend or Foe? A Review of Athlete Use, Performance Consequences and Other Considerations > Key Points
What the sources say
- Not checked yetcites [39] Marclay F, Grata E, Perrenoud L, Saugy M. A one-year monitoring of nicotine use in sport: frontier between potential performance enhancement and addiction issues. Forensic Sci Int. 2011;213(1–3):73–84. source
plain- Asserted: passes — The authors put it forward as true.
- Checkable: passes — It can be checked against evidence.
- Load-bearing: unclear — It is unclear whether the paper’s conclusions depend on it.
- Based: passes — The paper gives a reason why it holds.
In the paper
“prevalence of ‘active’ nicotine consumption immediately prior to and/or during sport practice was determined at 15% [39].”
§ Nicotine: Sporting Friend or Foe? A Review of Athlete Use, Performance Consequences and Other Considerations > Prevalence of Use Amongst Athletes and Sports > Anti-Doping Urine Sample Analysis
What the sources say
- Not checked yetcites [39] Marclay F, Grata E, Perrenoud L, Saugy M. A one-year monitoring of nicotine use in sport: frontier between potential performance enhancement and addiction issues. Forensic Sci Int. 2011;213(1–3):73–84. source
plain- Asserted: passes — The authors put it forward as true.
- Checkable: passes — It can be checked against evidence.
- Load-bearing: unclear — It is unclear whether the paper’s conclusions depend on it.
- Based: passes — The paper gives a reason why it holds.
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Rated minor: it would not touch a result — a value no result rests on, a p-value that stays on the same side of the significance level, or a conflict that is clerical, resolved elsewhere in the paper, or outside its own findings.
In the paper
§ Nicotine: Sporting Friend or Foe? A Review of Athlete Use, Performance Consequences and Other Considerations > Review of Physical Performance Studies > Effects on High-Intensity Exercise
“Of the four studies that assessed high-intensity and intermittent sprint exercise, only one demonstrated an ergogenic effect with nicotine [47] whilst the other three demonstrated no change [3, 45, 53].”
§ Nicotine: Sporting Friend or Foe? A Review of Athlete Use, Performance Consequences and Other Considerations > Review of Physical Performance Studies > Effects on High-Intensity Exercise
“Mündel et al. [47] demonstrated that neither nicotine gum affected anaerobic capacity but that low-dose (2 mg) gum did affect the pacing strategy adopted.”
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Hoang, N., Selamoğlu, M., Papadopoulos, I., 老迟, Wild, H., Kotwas, S., Rio, I., Turudia, K., Cridland, D., & Barton, C. (2026) · International Journal of Environmental Research and Public Health · doi:10.3390/ijerph23091128
Joubran, E., Dent, C., Ilyaev, L., Warlick, H., Ardeljan, A., & Gallicchio, V. S. (2026) · Scientific Reports · doi:10.1038/s41598-026-74810-y
Metadata
- Authors
- Mündel, T.
- Affiliations
- Massey University (NZ)
- Corresponding author
- Mündel, Toby
- ORCID
- Mündel, Toby
- Venue
- Sports Medicine
- Published
- 2017-08-08
- Volume
- 47
- Issue
- 12
- Pages
- 2497-2506
- ISSN
- 0112-1642 (ISSN-L)
- 1179-2035
- PMC
- PMC5684328
- OpenAlex
- W2743899973
- Semantic Scholar
- fbeec4cba9e052cd595af14da19b8c1741286fc9
- Cited by
- 71
- References
- 63
- Citations by year
- 2026: 9 · 2025: 10 · 2024: 8 · 2023: 9 · 2022: 9 · 2021: 3 · 2020: 10 · 2019: 8 · 2018: 5
- FWCI
- 1.37
- Type
- journal article
- Language
- en
- Open access
- hybrid
- doi.org
- Locations
- Sports Medicine (publishedVersion, cc-by)
- PubMed (publishedVersion)
- PubMed Central (publishedVersion, cc-by)
- Topics
- Social Sciences › Sociology and Political Science › Doping in Sports
- Health Sciences › Medicine › Public Health, Environmental and Occupational Health › Smoking Behavior and Cessation
- Health Sciences › Medicine › Orthopedics and Sports Medicine › Sports Performance and Training
- Keywords
- nicotine, athletes, physical performance, ergogenic aids, smokeless tobacco, anti-doping, doping control, endurance, high-intensity exercise, nicotine tolerance, team sports
- MeSH terms
- Doping in Sports, Humans, Musculoskeletal System, Nicotine, Sports, Muscle Strength, Athletic Performance, Athletes, Performance-Enhancing Substances
About these checks
Registry, retraction, Cites and statistics results are computed, not judged, with one exception: a printed reference that no index lists is read once by a model before it counts as a citation error. Claims are extracted by a model and kept only when their quote appears verbatim in the text; each cited source is then checked, with a model’s help, for whether it says what the claim relies on. Those verdicts can be wrong — read the claim’s quote and the cited source before relying on one.
A language model drew the claims from the paper on 2026-11-13, under version 3 of the claim definition (model deepseek-v4.1-flash, prompt extract-v3).
A second model labelled each claim on 2026-11-13 (model jev-1.13-20260917, definition revision gold-guideline-v0.2).
Statistics and arithmetic are recomputed, not judged.
Confidence bands are shown only for fields calibrated on our annotated test set. None is calibrated yet, so no band is shown.
What counts as a claim ›How we measure confidence ›How we check this ›
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Data sources
Bibliographic data: Semantic Scholar, OpenAlex, Crossref.
Contains information from the Semantic Scholar Academic Graph Datasets, made available under the ODC Attribution License (ODC-BY 1.0).
Semantic Scholar’s data is described in: Kinney, R., et al. (2023). The Semantic Scholar Open Data Platform. arXiv:2301.10140.
