Cited by 2,207Mental Health Treatment and AccessTreatment of Major DepressionAnxiety, Depression, Psychometrics, Treatment, Cognitive Processes

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Sex and depression in the National Comorbidity Survey, I: lifetime prevalence, chronicity and recurrence

Kessler, R·1993·Journal of Affective Disorders

DOI 10.1016/0165-0327(93)90026-g

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Abstract

Basic epidemiologic prevalence data are presented on sex differences in DSM-III-R major depressive episodes (MDE). The data come from the National Comorbidity Survey (NCS), the first survey in the U.S. to administer a structured psychiatric interview to a nationally representative sample of the general population. Consistent with previous research, women are approximately 1.7 times as likely as men to report a lifetime history of MDE. Age of onset analysis shows that this sex difference begins in early adolescence and persists through the mid-50s. Women also have a much higher rate of 12-month depression than men. However, women with a history of depression do not differ from men with a history of depression in either the probability of being chronically depressed in the past year or in the probability of having an acute recurrence in the past year. This means that the higher prevalence of 12-month depression among women than men is largely due to women having a higher risk of first onset. The implications of these results for future research are discussed in a closing section of the paper.

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“It might have been expected that gender would influence the family link between ADHD and MD given prior findings that gender plays a role in the onset, presentation, and duration of both ADHD and MD (Kessler et al., 1993; Gaub and Carlson, 1997).”
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Visscher, P. M., Yazdi, M. H., Jackson, A. D., Schalling, M., Lindblad, K., Yuan, Q.-P., Porteous, D. J., Muir, W. J., & Blackwood, D. (2001) · Psychiatric Genetics · doi:10.1097/00041444-200109000-00004 · Cited by 30
“Two of the most consistent findings in the epidemiology of depression are that the prevalence of depression is about twice as high among women as men and prevalence rates are higher among younger Žthan older people Kessler et al., 1993; Weissman et .”
Association between intrusive negative autobiographical memories and depression: A meta‐analytic investigation
Mihailova, S., & Jobson, L. (2018) · Clinical Psychology & Psychotherapy · doi:10.1002/cpp.2184 · Cited by 38
Early life stress alters opioid receptor mRNA levels within the nucleus accumbens in a sex-dependent manner
Chang, L., Kigar, S. L., Ho, J. H., Cuarenta, A., Gunderson, H. C., Baldo, B. A., Bakshi, V. P., & Auger, A. P. (2018) · Brain Research · doi:10.1016/j.brainres.2018.12.040 · Cited by 33
“Importantly, biological sex is another contributing factor that influences mental health risk, and sex differences are observed in diagnoses, onset, and manifestation of various psychopathologies, including depression, anxiety disorders, eating disorders, and schizophrenia (Aleman et al., 2003; Kessler et al., 1993; K…”
Background
Predictors of post-concussion symptom severity in a university-based concussion clinic
Houck, Z. M., Asken, B., Bauer, R., & Clugston, J. (2019) · Brain Injury · doi:10.1080/02699052.2019.1565897 · Cited by 29
Female HPA axis displays heightened sensitivity to pre-pubertal stress
Brydges, N. M., Best, C., & Thomas, K. L. (2019) · Stress · doi:10.1080/10253890.2019.1658738 · Cited by 30
“…affective disorders, major depressive disorder and post-traumatic stress disorder (PTSD)(Christiansen & Hansen, 2015; Kessler et al., 2003; Kessler, Chiu, Demler, Merikangas, & Walters, 2005; Kessler, McGonagle, Swartz, Blazer, & Nelson, 1993; Remes, Brayne, van der Linde, & Lafortune, 2016).”
Vitamin D and Depression in Women: A Mini-review
Boulkrane, M. S., Fedotova, J., Kolodyaznaya, V. S., Micale, V., Drago, F., van den Tol, A. J. M., & Baranenko, D. (2019) · Current Neuropharmacology · doi:10.2174/1570159x17666191108111120 · Cited by 34
Does Usage of Online Social Media Help Users With Depressed Symptoms Improve Their Mental Health? Empirical Evidence From an Online Depression Community
Lu, Y., Pan, T., Liu, J., & Wu, J. (2021) · Frontiers in Public Health · doi:10.3389/fpubh.2020.581088 · Cited by 34
Change in Adolescents' Internalizing Symptomatology as a Function of Sex and the Timing of Maternal Depressive Symptomatology
Jenkins, J. M., & Curwen, T. (2008) · Journal of the American Academy of Child & Adolescent Psychiatry · doi:10.1097/chi.0b013e31816407db · Cited by 31
Bidirectional Associations Between Parenting Behavior and Child Callous-Unemotional Traits: Does Parental Depression Moderate this Link?
Childs, A. W., Fite, P. J., Moore, T. M., Lochman, J. E., & Pardini, D. A. (2014) · Research on Child and Adolescent Psychopathology · doi:10.1007/s10802-014-9856-y · Cited by 30
“Depression, which occurs frequently in caregivers, but especially in mothers (Kessler et al. 1993), may impact the relations between parenting and CU traits.”
Background
Predictions get tougher in older individuals: a longitudinal study of optimism, pessimism and depression
Armbruster, D., Pieper, L., Klotsche, J., & Hoyer, J. (2014) · Social Psychiatry and Psychiatric Epidemiology · doi:10.1007/s00127-014-0959-0 · Cited by 32
“[38], men and women were also analyzed separately.”
Background
Subchronic treatment with fluoxetine attenuates effects of acute fluoxetine on female rat sexual behavior
Sarkar, J., Hiegel, C., Ginis, G. E., Hilbun, E., & Uphouse, L. L. (2007) · Brain Research · doi:10.1016/j.brainres.2007.11.033 · Cited by 30
“Fluoxetine (Prozac®) is frequently prescribed for depression as well as for a variety of other disorders such as premenstrual dysphoria, anxiety, anorexia and bulemia which are more prevalent in females than in males [4,19,22,33].”
Background
Role of corticosteroid binding globulin in emotional reactivity sex differences in mice
Minni, A., de Medeiros, G. F., Helbling, J., Duittoz, A. H., Marissal‐Arvy, N., Foury, A., Smedt, V. D., Pallet, V., & Moisan, M. (2014) · Psychoneuroendocrinology · doi:10.1016/j.psyneuen.2014.07.029 · Cited by 34
Relationships among 5-HTT genotype, life events and gender in the recognition of facial emotions
Antypa, N., Cerit, H., Kruijt, A., Verhoeven, F. E. A., & van der Does, W. A. J. (2010) · Neuroscience · doi:10.1016/j.neuroscience.2010.10.042 · Cited by 33
Indicators of Adolescent Depression and Relationship Progression in Emerging Adulthood
Mernitz, S., & Dush, C. M. K. (2014) · Journal of Marriage and the Family · doi:10.1111/jomf.12081 · Cited by 30
“Gender differences in depression began to emerge in adolescence and persist into adulthood (Kessler et al., 1993).”
Background
Living alone, lack of a confidant and psychological well‐being of elderly women in Singapore: the mediating role of loneliness
Lim, L. L., & Ng, T. P. (2010) · Asia-Pacific Psychiatry · doi:10.1111/j.1758-5872.2009.00049.x · Cited by 30
“One of the most widely replicated findings about depression is its greater prevalence in women (Kessler et al. 1993).”
Background
Increased limbic phosphorylated extracellular-regulated kinase 1 and 2 expression after chronic stress is reduced by cyclic 17β-estradiol administration
Gerrits, M., Westenbroek, C., Koch, T., Grootkarzijn, A., & Horst, G. J. T. (2006) · Neuroscience · doi:10.1016/j.neuroscience.2006.07.014 · Cited by 30
Depressive symptoms in relation to clinical symptom onset of mild cognitive impairment
Chan, C. K., Soldan, A., Pettigrew, C. A., Wang, M., Wang, J., Albert, M., & Rosenberg, P. B. (2018) · International Psychogeriatrics · doi:10.1017/s1041610218001138 · Cited by 31
Randomized Trial of Weekly, Twice-Monthly, and Monthly Interpersonal Psychotherapy as Maintenance Treatment for Women With Recurrent Depression
Frank, E. (2007) · American Journal of Psychiatry · doi:10.1176/appi.ajp.164.5.761 · Cited by 30
“Further development of nonpharmacologic preventive maintenance strategies is especially relevant for women, given the female-to-male prevalence ratio of approximately 2:1 for unipolar depression (14-16) and the preference of women for treatment with psychotherapy (5, 6), especially during the childbearing years, when…”
Background
Puberty and depression
Angold, A. C., Worthman, C. M., & Costello, E. J. (2003) · Cambridge University Press eBooks · doi:10.1017/cbo9780511489716.009 · Cited by 31
The importance of psychosocial factors, gender, and severity of depression in distinguishing between adjustment and depressive disorders
Barnow, S., Linden, M., Lucht, M. J., & Freyberger, H. J. (2002) · Journal of Affective Disorders · doi:10.1016/s0165-0327(01)00424-4 · Cited by 30
Gender Differences in Health
Bird, C. E., & Rieker, P. P. (2012) · Cambridge University Press eBooks · doi:10.1017/cbo9780511807305.003 · Cited by 30
The Midlife Crisis Revisited
Rosenberg, S. D., Rosenberg, H. J., & Farrell, M. P. (1999) · Elsevier eBooks · doi:10.1016/b978-012757230-7/50022-5 · Cited by 30
The Stirling County Study: Then and now
Murphy, J. M. (1994) · International Review of Psychiatry · doi:10.3109/09540269409023271 · Cited by 30
CRISPR/Cas9-Based therapeutics as a promising strategy for management of Alzheimer’s disease: progress and prospects
Khan, M. S., Qureshi, N., Khan, R., Son, Y., & Maqbool, T. (2025) · Frontiers in Cellular Neuroscience · doi:10.3389/fncel.2025.1578138 · Cited by 37
The relation of developmental changes in brain serotonin transporter (5HTT) and 5HT1A receptor binding to emotional behavior in female rhesus monkeys: Effects of social status and 5HTT genotype
Embree, M., Michopoulos, V., Votaw, J. R., Voll, R. J., Mun, J.-Y., Stehouwer, J. S., Goodman, M. M., Wilson, M. E., & Sánchez, M. M. (2012) · Neuroscience · doi:10.1016/j.neuroscience.2012.10.016 · Cited by 29
“The risk of stress-related disorders, such as anxiety or major depression, is nearly twice as high for women as for men (Kessler et al., 1993), and the increased incidence of mood disorders emerges during adolescence in girls (Nolen-Hoeksema and Girgus, 1994; Forbes et al., 2004).”
Background
Stage-Specific Gender Differences in Cognitive and Neuropsychiatric Manifestations of Vascular Dementia
Xing, Y., Wei, C., Chu, C., Zhou, A., Li, F., Wu, L., Song, H., Zuo, X., Wang, F., Qin, W., et al. (2012) · American Journal of Alzheimer s Disease & Other Dementias® · doi:10.1177/1533317512454712 · Cited by 29
“It is widely accepted that the frequencies of depression and anxiety in the general population are higher in females than in males.(4,5) Based on these findings, researchers began to be interested in gender differences among patients with dementia.”
Background
Effective treatment of depression improves post-myocardial infarction survival
Banankhah, S. K., Friedmann, E., & Thomas, S. (2015) · World Journal of Cardiology · doi:10.4330/wjc.v7.i4.215 · Cited by 30
The Increased Sex Differences in Susceptibility to Emotional Stimuli during Adolescence: An Event-Related Potential Study
Yang, J., Zhang, S., Lou, Y., Long, Q., Liang, Y., Xie, S., & Yuan, J. (2018) · Frontiers in Human Neuroscience · doi:10.3389/fnhum.2017.00660 · Cited by 29
“This provides an explanation for the epidemiological reports of girls’ increased incidence of affective disturbances relative to boys that begins from early adolescence (Kessler et al., 1993; Nolen-Hoeksema and Girgus, 1994; Ge et al., 2001; Marcotte et al., 2002; Hyde et al., 2008).”
Background
The molecular basis of depression: implications of sex-related differences in epigenetic regulation
Kawatake-Kuno, A., Murai, T., & Uchida, S. (2021) · Frontiers in Molecular Neuroscience · doi:10.3389/fnmol.2021.708004 · Cited by 23

Authors: Kessler, R.
Affiliations: University of Michigan (US)
Corresponding author: Kessler, R
ORCID: Kessler, R
Venue: Journal of Affective Disorders
Publisher: Elsevier BV
Published: 1993-11
Volume: 29
Issue: 2-3
Pages: 85-96
ISSN: 0165-0327 (ISSN-L)
DOI: 10.1016/0165-0327(93)90026-g
OpenAlex: W1992284534
Cited by: 2,207
References: 67
Citations by year: 2026: 31 · 2025: 50 · 2024: 47 · 2023: 58 · 2022: 84 · 2021: 71 · 2020: 73 · 2019: 78 · 2018: 78 · 2017: 124 · 2016: 81 · 2015: 98 · 2014: 119 · 2013: 105 · 2012: 101
FWCI: 21.43
Type: journal article
Language: en
Open access: closed
Licence: www.elsevier.com/tdm/userlicense/1.0/ (tdm)
Locations: Journal of Affective Disorders (publishedVersion)
PubMed (publishedVersion)
Deep Blue (University of Michigan) (submittedVersion)
Funders: State University of New York
Johns Hopkins University
York University
University of Toronto
National Institute of Mental Health (5RO1 MH46376, R01MH046376, MH 46376, 90135190)
Topics: Health Sciences › Medicine › Psychiatry and Mental health › Mental Health Treatment and Access
Health Sciences › Medicine › Pharmacology (medical) › Treatment of Major Depression
Social Sciences › Psychology › Experimental and Cognitive Psychology › Anxiety, Depression, Psychometrics, Treatment, Cognitive Processes
Keywords: sex differences, major depressive episode, depression prevalence, chronic depression, depression recurrence, age of onset, National Comorbidity Survey, men and women
MeSH terms: Adolescent, Adult, Age Factors, Chronic Disease, Cross-Sectional Studies, Depressive Disorder, Female, Humans, Male, Middle Aged, Personality Assessment, Psychiatric Status Rating Scales, Recurrence, Sex Factors, United States, Cohort Studies, Comorbidity, Incidence

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Sex and depression in the National Comorbidity Survey, I: lifetime prevalence, chronicity and recurrence

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