Receipt of Post-Rape Medical Care in a National Sample of Female Victims
Open accessAbstract
Background It is important for rape victims to receive medical care to prevent and treat rape-related diseases and injuries, access forensic exams, and connect to needed resources. Few victims seek care, and factors associated with post-rape medical care-seeking are poorly understood. Purpose The current study examined prevalence and factors associated with post-rape medical care-seeking in a national sample of women who reported a most-recent or only incident of forcible rape, and drug- or alcohol-facilitated/incapacitated rape when they were aged ≥14 years. Methods A national sample of U.S. adult women (N=3001) completed structured telephone interviews in 2006, and data for this study were analyzed in 2011. Logistic regression analyses examined demographic variables, health, rape characteristics, and post-rape concerns in relation to post-rape medical care-seeking among 445 female rape victims. Results A minority of rape victims (21%) sought post-rape medical attention following the incident. In the final multivariate model, correlates of medical care included black race, rape-related injury, concerns about sexually transmitted diseases, pregnancy concerns, and reporting the incident to police. Conclusions Women who experience rapes consistent with stereotypic scenarios, acknowledge the rape, report the rape, and harbor health concerns appear to be more likely to seek post-rape medical services. Education is needed to increase rape acknowledgment, awareness of post-rape services that do not require formal reporting, and recognition of the need to treat rape-related health problems.
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Many individuals still do not seek SA exams following an experience of SA due to fear, barriers to access, or lack of understanding about SA exams.
“many individuals still do not seek SA exams following an experience of SA due to fear, barriers to access, or lack of understanding about SA exams (Fisher et al., 2003; Zinzow et al., 2012).”
From “Having One Person Tell Me I Didn’t Do the Wrong Thing”: The Impact of Support on the Post-Sexual Assault Exam Experience (2024) · cites this paper as Zinzow et al., 2012
The Results report that only 21% of the sampled rape victims received post-rape medical attention. The Discussion’s Implications section identifies stigma, service accessibility, and lack of knowledge as potential barriers, but the study does not establish that these caused people to forgo sexual-assault exams specifically; it measured medical attention more broadly. (LLM, conf=0.88)
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“…more engagement with the criminal justice system (Campbell, Bybee et al., 2012; Campbell et al., 2005), many individuals still do not seek SA exams following an experience of SA due to fear, barriers to access, or lack of understanding about SA exams (Fisher et al., 2003; Zinzow et al., 2012).”
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“In a national sample, although White survivors were 2.6 times more likely than survivors of other races to seek help for emotional challenges (Amstadter et al., 2008), Black survivors were three times more likely than White survivors to seek post-SV medical care (Zinzow et al., 2012).”
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“Additionally, as service providers become increasingly enmeshed with the state, victims reporting to rape crisis centers and similar organizations may end up also reporting to the police (Martin 2005; Nugent-Borakove et al. 2005; Ruch 2000; Zinzow et al. 2012).”
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“Increasing labeling has often been suggested as an important first step toward accessing care (Zinzow et al., 2012), but this approach pre-sumes that survivors should conform to existing systems, instead of creating systems around survivors’ processes and needs.”
What’s Missing Matters: Examining Missing Data Problems in Sexual Assault Kit Data
Harper, S. B., Davis, A., Shepp, V., O’Callaghan, E. T., & Maskály, J. (2023) · Deviant Behavior · doi:10.1080/01639625.2023.2255914 · Cited by 3 · see citing works
“Other research, however, suggests the opposite – Zinzow et al. (2012) found that Black survivors are more likely to seek post-assault medical care than White survivors, while Weist et al. (2014) found that White survivors are more likely than Black survivors to seek other forms of post-assault care…”
ResultTreating the Adult Sexual Assault Victim: Evidence-Based Assessment and Treatment
Leach, N. R., & Orchowski, L. M. (2019) · Springer eBooks · doi:10.1007/978-3-030-23645-8_29 · Cited by 3 · see citing works
Psychobiological correlates of rape in female adolescents
Bicanic, I. (2014) · Utrecht University Repository (Utrecht University) · Cited by 3 · see citing works
Tao, G., Patel, C. G., & Stanford, K. A. (2024) · Academic Emergency Medicine · doi:10.1111/acem.15058 · Cited by 2 · see citing works
Cottler-Casanova, S., Lourenço, V., Guillot, C., Poncet, A., Musse, F., Imbaud, R., Mathevet, P., Petignat, P., Yaron, M., Fracasso, T., et al. (2025) · Swiss Medical Weekly · doi:10.57187/s.3913 · Cited by 2 · see citing works
Prior Sexual Violence, PTSD Symptoms, and Recovery Trajectories After New Trauma
Mellen, E., Poplin, T., Jovanović, T., Rowland, G. E., House, S. L., Beaudoin, F. L., An, X., Stevens, J. S., Neylan, T. C., Clifford, G. D., et al. (2026) · JAMA Psychiatry · doi:10.1001/jamapsychiatry.2026.2219 · Cited by 2 · see citing works
Walsh, K., Short, N. A., Ji, Y. Y., An, X. M., Witkemper, K. D., Lechner, M., Bell, K., Black, J., Buchanan, J., Ho, J. D., et al. (2024) · Journal of Psychiatric Research · doi:10.1016/j.jpsychires.2024.04.013 · Cited by 2 · see citing works
Sexual Abuse and Misuse of Alcohol and Substances
Fiorilli, R., Salone, A., Mancusi, G., Nivoli, A., & Martinotti, G. (2023) · Trends in andrology and sexual medicine · doi:10.1007/978-3-031-47892-5_12 · Cited by 2 · see citing works
Walsh, K., Schipani‐McLaughlin, A. M., Stappenbeck, C. A., Massa, A. A., Oliver, J., McLean, S. A., McKay, S., Carroll, B., Stier, A. L., Curran, K., et al. (2026) · European Journal of Psychotraumatology · doi:10.1080/20008066.2026.2696639 · Cited by 1 · see citing works
“Providing intervention content in the days and weeks following the SAMFE may allow survivors to interact with content and practice skills in their own time.”
InfluentialDelwiche, J., Spicuzza, J. M. D., Birbeck, J., Wangerin, S., & Miyamoto, S. (2025) · Journal of Forensic Nursing · doi:10.1097/jfn.0000000000000587 · Cited by 1 · see citing works
Mattison, M. L. A., Majeed‐Ariss, R., & White, C. (2022) · Psychology Crime and Law · doi:10.1080/1068316x.2022.2030331 · Cited by 1 · see citing works
“requirement to report the assault to the police (Zinzow et al., 2012), but need care for injuries, assessment for risk of pregnancy or sexually transmitted infections.”
BackgroundMissed Opportunities in Comprehensive Response to Sexual Assaults in Ekiti State, Nigeria
Okunola, T. O., Aduloju, O. P., Solomon, O. A., Olatunya, O. S., Olofinbiyi, B. A., Fwacs, J. O. A., Ajiboye, A. S., Aduloju, T., Ilevbare, R., & Adeleye-Fayemi, O. (2022) · Arab Journal of Forensic Sciences and Forensic Medicine · doi:10.26735/fswt3510 · Cited by 1 · see citing works
“Other long-term health consequences are chronic pain, gastrointestinal problems, generalised somatic symptoms and poor overall health status [2,3].”
BackgroundColbert, S. (2023) · Journal of Trauma & Dissociation · doi:10.1080/15299732.2023.2289193 · Cited by 1 · see citing works
“Research has repeatedly shown that DFSA survivors are less likely to seek post-rape medical care, including referral for mental health support (Resnick et al., 2000; Walsh et al., 2016; Zinzow et al., 2012).”
BackgroundPrince, J. R., McKee, G. B., Stappenbeck, C. A., Gill-Hopple, K., & Gilmore, A. K. (2025) · Journal of Child Sexual Abuse · doi:10.1080/10538712.2025.2457149 · Cited by 1 · see citing works
“Following an assault, approximately 21–43% of survivors seek post-assault medical care or forensic testing (Campbell et al., 2020; Ullman & Lorenz, 2019; Zinzow et al., 2012).”
Lathan, E. C., Selwyn, C. N., Gigler, M. E., Langhinrichsen‐Rohling, J., & Gilmore, A. K. (2023) · Violence and Victims · doi:10.1891/vv-2022-0074 · Cited by 1 · see citing works
Sexual Assault Incident Characteristics and Confidante Responses
Lasky, N. V. (2016) · OhioLink ETD Center (Ohio Library and Information Network)
Medical Management Of Sexual Assault Survivors At An Academic Medical Center
Rowshanrad, S., Kneebusch, J., & Rafie, S. (2016) · Journal of Woman s Reproductive Health · doi:10.14302/issn.2381-862x.jwrh-15-846
Acosta, L. (2019) · UA Campus Repository (The University of Arizona)
Delitos sexuales: un enfoque médico legal
Cabrera-Cano, E., Mayoral, E. P., Mayoral, C. P., Martínez-Helmes, R., & Andrade, G. M. (2020) · Tequio · doi:10.53331/teq.v4i10.6642
THE IMPACT OF SEXUAL VIOLENCE ON FEMALES’ ACADEMIC PERFORMANCE AT TERTIARY LEVEL
Tariq, N., Abbasi, A. M., & Rehmat, S. (2024) · MAIRAJ · doi:10.58760/mairaj.v3i1.27
Special Topic: Gynecology Trauma
Dickson, B. (2024) · Journal of Gynecologic Surgery · doi:10.1089/gyn.2024.0073
Review of Gynecological Trauma: Acute Sexual Assault
Bader, A. P. (2024) · Journal of Gynecologic Surgery · doi:10.1089/gyn.2024.0041
Walsh, K., Klein, L. B., Luebke, J. M., Moore, K. M., Ruiz, A. M., Curran, K., & Melnik, J. (2025) · Journal of Emergency Nursing · doi:10.1016/j.jen.2024.12.005
“I Had to Make it Safe in My Mind”: Strategizing and Harm Insulation Among Sexual Assault Survivors
Harris, A. N., Shaw, J., & Bailey, C. (2025) · Sexuality Research & Social Policy · doi:10.1007/s13178-025-01085-9
“…these strategies; prior research finds that only 5–35% of rape survivors report to police and about 20% seek post-assault medical care (Ahrens et al., 2007; Huemmer et al., 2018; Kahn et al., 2003; Lonsway & Archambault, 2012; Rennison, 2002; Sabina et al., 2012; Shultz, 2019; Zinzow et al., 2012).”
Mental Health Symptoms and Substance Use After Recent Sexual Assault Based on Sexual Orientation
Salim, S. R., Tilstra-Ferrell, E. L., Mai, K., Rheingold, A. A., Gilmore, A. K., & Hahn, C. K. (2025) · Violence and Victims · doi:10.1891/vv-2024-0011
Abubakar, A. J., Ross, J. D. C., & Caswell, R. J. (2025) · Frontiers in Reproductive Health · doi:10.3389/frph.2025.1642585
Anderson, K. M., Tsuyuki, K., DeSoto, A. F., & Stockman, J. K. (2025) · BMC Family Practice · doi:10.1186/s12875-025-03105-4
“A separate national sample found that only 21% of women received medical attention following rape, and 27% of those with injury from rape; in this sample, Black women had significantly higher odds of seeking medical care, as did women with STI, HIV, or pregnancy concerns [8].”
Abubakar, A. J., Ayinde, O. C., Ross, J. D. C., Jackson, L., & Caswell, R. J. (2025) · Trauma Violence & Abuse · doi:10.1177/15248380251401924
Psychological and socioenvironmental dilemmas faced by female victims post-rape in Nigeria
Dung, D. G., Bhanbhro, S., Bond, C., & Hwolsworth, J. (2026) · Discover Public Health · doi:10.1186/s12982-026-01382-7
Mai, K., Salim, S. R., Tilstra-Ferrell, E. L., Rodriguez, S., Lazenby, G. B., Rheingold, A. A., & Hahn, C. K. (2026) · Journal of Forensic Nursing · doi:10.1097/jfn.0000000000000598
Thoresen, S., Wentzel‐Larsen, T., Arntzen, L., Johnsen, G. E., & Blix, I. (2026) · INQUIRY The Journal of Health Care Organization Provision and Financing · doi:10.1177/00469580261436513
“19,36,37 Individuals with a prior history of sexual assault or sexual abuse may be less likely to seek acute care, potentially due to heightened feelings of shame or increased concern about negative social reactions.”
Rogers, J., Griffin, C., Bailie, J., Freedman, E., Stewart, M. L., & Edmiston, N. (2026) · Sexual Health · doi:10.1071/sh25180
Hassanpour, P., Lee, J., Klein, L. B., Luebke, J. M., Stulting, T. T. S., Panwalkar, S., & Walsh, K. (2026) · BMC Health Services Research · doi:10.1186/s12913-026-15131-8
“For instance, nationally representative U.S. data indicate that only 21% of survivors [7] 1 access medical services post-assault.”
Goodman‐Williams, R. (2026) · Criminal Justice and Behavior · doi:10.1177/00938548261494206
- Authors
- Zinzow, H. M., Resnick, H. S., Barr, S. C., Danielson, C. K., & Kilpatrick, D. G.
- Affiliations
- Clemson University (US)
- Medical University of South Carolina (US)
- Corresponding author
- Zinzow, Heidi M.
- Venue
- American Journal of Preventive Medicine
- Publisher
- Elsevier BV
- Published
- 2012-08
- Volume
- 43
- Issue
- 2
- Pages
- 183-187
- ISSN
- 0749-3797 (ISSN-L)
- PMC
- PMC4084754
- OpenAlex
- W2068280956
- Cited by
- 90
- References
- 18
- Citations by year
- 2026: 8 · 2025: 12 · 2024: 8 · 2023: 9 · 2022: 10 · 2021: 4 · 2020: 4 · 2019: 8 · 2018: 3 · 2017: 4 · 2016: 5 · 2015: 5 · 2014: 5 · 2013: 3 · 2012: 2
- FWCI
- 11.76
- Type
- journal article
- Language
- en
- Open access
- green
- www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov
- Locations
- American Journal of Preventive Medicine (publishedVersion)
- PubMed (publishedVersion)
- Europe PMC (PubMed Central) (acceptedVersion)
- PubMed Central (acceptedVersion)
- Funders
- National Institute on Drug Abuse (R01DA023099)
- Topics
- Social Sciences › Gender Studies › Sexual Assault and Victimization Studies
- Social Sciences › Health › Intimate Partner and Family Violence
- Social Sciences › Psychology › Clinical Psychology › Child Abuse and Trauma
- Keywords
- rape, sexual assault, medical care seeking, sexually transmitted infections, pregnancy concerns, police reporting, health care utilization, racial differences
- MeSH terms
- Adolescent, Adult, Aged, Cross-Sectional Studies, Data Collection, Female, Patient Care, Humans, Middle Aged, Patient Acceptance of Health Care, Rape, United States, Multivariate Analysis, Logistic Models, Mandatory Reporting, Crime Victims, Young Adult
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