Barriers to Formal Help-seeking following Sexual Violence: Review from within an Ecological Systems Framework

Zinzow, Heidi M.; Littleton, Heather; Muscari, Emma; Sall, Kayla

doi:10.1080/15564886.2021.1978023

Cited by 90Sexual Assault and Victimization StudiesIntimate Partner and Family ViolenceChild Abuse and Trauma

Barriers to Formal Help-seeking following Sexual Violence: Review from within an Ecological Systems Framework

Zinzow, Heidi M., Littleton, Heather, Muscari, Emma, Sall, Kayla·2022·Victims & Offenders

DOI 10.1080/15564886.2021.1978023

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Abstract

Only a minority of adolescent/adult survivors seek formal assistance following sexual victimization, and as such may not receive adequate care. The current paper is a systematic review of the published literature on barriers to formal help-seeking from within an ecological systems framework. Results supported that survivors often face significant help-seeking barriers at multiple levels of the ecological system. At the individual level, barriers include being a member of an oppressed or minoritized group, lack of acknowledgment of the sexual victimization, and self-stigma related to one’s victimization. At the microsystem level, barriers include negative reactions to assault disclosure as well as fear of reprisal from the perpetrator. At the mesosystem and exosystem levels, barriers include a lack of resource access and availability, laws that can impede help-seeking, rigid societal gender roles, and cultural norms that emphasize secrecy and maintenance of family honor. Implications for research, practice, and policy include a need for research focused on barriers to help-seeking at multiple ecological levels, policies to increase resource availability and access, and training of providers to ensure competence to address survivors’ needs.

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In prior research, fear of labeling effects was considered a contextual reason.
“In prior research, fear of labeling effects was considered a contextual reason and denoted, for instance, the fear of stigmas associated with rigid gender roles (e.g., being perceived as gay, weak, or “impure”; Collin-Vézina et al., 2015; Zinzow et al., 2022).”
From Why They Speak Up (or Don’t): Reasons For and Against Cybergrooming Disclosure Among Adolescent Victims (2025) · cites this paper as Zinzow et al., 2022

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Why They Speak Up (or Don’t): Reasons For and Against Cybergrooming Disclosure Among Adolescent Victims
Schittenhelm, C., Weber, C., Kops, M., & Wachs, S. (2025) · Journal of Youth and Adolescence · doi:10.1007/s10964-025-02192-x · Cited by 9 · see citing works
“In prior research, fear of labeling effects was considered a contextual reason and denoted, for instance, the fear of stigmas associated with rigid gender roles (e.g., being perceived as gay, weak, or “ impure ” ; Collin-Vézina et al., 2015; Zinzow et al., 2022).”

Authors: Zinzow, H. M., Littleton, H., Muscari, E., & Sall, K.
Affiliations: Clemson University (US)
University of Colorado Colorado Springs (US)
East Carolina University (US)
Corresponding author: Zinzow, Heidi M.
ORCID: Zinzow, Heidi M.
Littleton, Heather
Sall, Kayla
Venue: Victims & Offenders
Publisher: Informa UK Limited
Published: 2021-10-06
Volume: 17
Issue: 6
Pages: 893-918
ISSN: 1556-4886 (ISSN-L)
1556-4991
DOI: 10.1080/15564886.2021.1978023
OpenAlex: W3206904038
Cited by: 90
References: 100
Citations by year: 2026: 24 · 2025: 32 · 2024: 21 · 2023: 10 · 2022: 3
FWCI: 11.83
Type: journal article
Language: en
Open access: closed
Locations: Victims & Offenders (publishedVersion)
Topics: Social Sciences › Gender Studies › Sexual Assault and Victimization Studies
Social Sciences › Health › Intimate Partner and Family Violence
Social Sciences › Psychology › Clinical Psychology › Child Abuse and Trauma
Keywords: sexual violence, help-seeking barriers, ecological systems framework, self-stigma, fear of retaliation, gender roles, family honor, minoritized communities, access to resources, provider training

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Barriers to Formal Help-seeking following Sexual Violence: Review from within an Ecological Systems Framework

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