Racial/ethnic socialization for White youth: What we know and future directions

Loyd, Aerika Brittian; Gaither, Sarah E.

doi:10.1016/j.appdev.2018.05.004

Cited by 170Racial and Ethnic Identity ResearchSocial and Intergroup PsychologyCritical Race Theory in Education

Racial/ethnic socialization for White youth: What we know and future directions

Loyd, Aerika Brittian, Gaither, Sarah E.·2018·Journal of Applied Developmental Psychology

DOI 10.1016/j.appdev.2018.05.004

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In the first U.S. census in 1790, individuals were not asked to report their ethnicity or heritage, but were divided into "free white males (separated by age), free white females, other free persons, and slaves".
“In the first U.S. census in 1790, individuals were not asked to report their ethnicity or heritage, but were divided into “free white males (separated by age), free white females, other free persons, and slaves” (Loyd & Gaither, 2018, pp. 64–65).”
From Studying Ethnic-Racial Identity among White Youth: White Supremacy as a Developmental Context (2022) · cites this paper as Loyd & Gaither, 2018
Fewer researchers have studied the parallel messaging white youth receive (or do not receive), although research in this area is increasing.
“Fewer researchers have studied the parallel messaging white youth receive (or do not receive), although research in this area is increasing (Hagerman, 2018; Hughes et al., 2008; Loyd & Gaither, 2018; Perry, 2002; Perry et al., 2019; Sullivan et al., 2021).”
From Studying Ethnic-Racial Identity among White Youth: White Supremacy as a Developmental Context (2022) · cites this paper as Loyd & Gaither, 2018

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“In the first U.S. census in 1790, individuals were not asked to report their ethnicity or heritage, but were divided into “free white males (separated by age), free white females, other free persons, and slaves” (Loyd & Gaither, 2018, pp. 64–65).”
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“…also in ﬂ uence and inform the racial identity of White people — assessing factors such as emotions linked to White identity can guide White people to understand their privileged identity better and be intentional when engaging in antiracist strategies (Dull et al., 2021; Loyd & Gaither, 2018).”
Empowering behaviors to address race with kids (EmBARK): A racial socialization program for white families
Scott, K. E., Huth, N., Fukuda, E., Shutts, K., & Devine, P. G. (2024) · Journal of Applied Developmental Psychology · doi:10.1016/j.appdev.2024.101696 · Cited by 6 · see citing works
“…age (Abaied & Perry, 2021; Brown et al., 2007; Gal ´ an et al., 2022; Hughes et al., 2006; Hunter et al., 2012; Juang & Syed, 2010; Lesane-Brown et al., 2010; Loyd & Gaither, 2018; Perry et al., 2019; Rivas-Drake et al., 2009; Spanierman, 2022; Tyler et al., 2008; Zucker & Patterson, 2018).”
Familial critical consciousness socialization: How key family theories can expand racial‐ethnic socialization research among Asian American families
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“, and create a greater understanding of the state of the science of promoting and supporting antiracist and equitable societies (Loe, 2020; Loyd & Gaither, 2018).”
BackgroundMethod
Oh, SNAP! Poverty Simulations in Social Justice Classrooms: Active and Experiential Learning
Luca, S. M. D., & Benden, A. (2018) · Journal of Poverty · doi:10.1080/10875549.2018.1517400 · Cited by 5
“…learning indicated that participants increased students’ awareness of the structural and historical mechanisms related to racial/ethnic inequalities while increasing their focus away from individuals toward emphasizing institutional and social change (Loyd & Gaither, 2018; Nagda et al., 2003).”
Background
The Role of Family Ethnic Socialization and Generational Status in White Adolescents’ Ethnic-Racial Identity Development
Ison, A., Satterthwaite‐Freiman, M., Sladek, M. R., & Umaña‐Taylor, A. J. (2023) · Journal of Adolescent Research · doi:10.1177/07435584231166118 · Cited by 7 · see citing works
“For White adolescents and emerging adults, schools have the capacity to promote ERI exploration and anti-racist attitudes (Loyd & Gaither, 2018; Sladek et al., 2021).”
White Kids on the Block: On Race, Identity and Criminality Among Incarcerated White Youth
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Discourses about race in the United States: A thematic analysis of short essays
Raval, V. V., Ovia, T., Freeman, M., Raj, S. P., & Daga, S. S. (2021) · International Journal of Intercultural Relations · doi:10.1016/j.ijintrel.2021.05.004 · Cited by 4 · see citing works
Parent's ethnic-racial socialization practices in families with young children experiencing homelessness
Tyrell, F. A., Lucke, C. M., Nelson, K. M., & Masten, A. S. (2022) · Early Childhood Research Quarterly · doi:10.1016/j.ecresq.2022.07.018 · Cited by 5 · see citing works
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Hennigar, A., Cabrera, N., & Chen, Y. (2020) · Springer eBooks · doi:10.1007/978-3-030-51027-5_21 · Cited by 6 · see citing works
“Children Understand More at that Age”: African American, Mexican, Dominican, and Chinese Heritage US Mothers’ Conceptions of Race Readiness
Kuchirko, Y. A., Bennet, A., Halim, M. L., Hughes, D. L., & Niwa, E. Y. (2025) · Social Development · doi:10.1111/sode.70020 · Cited by 3 · see citing works
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Castro, E. M., Dotson, M. P., Quiles, T., Dull, B. D., Mullings, I., Hammett, E., Hoyt, L. T., & Cohen, A. K. (2025) · Journal of Adolescent Research · doi:10.1177/07435584251334730 · Cited by 3 · see citing works
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Logan, F., Montague, D. P. F., Lozada, F. T., & Fingerhut, R. (2024) · Journal of Applied Developmental Psychology · doi:10.1016/j.appdev.2024.101695 · Cited by 3 · see citing works
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Blevins, E. J., & Todd, N. R. (2021) · American Journal of Community Psychology · doi:10.1002/ajcp.12572 · Cited by 3 · see citing works
Identity in the school context: a systematic review and theoretical integration of research on school diversity climate and ethnic-racial identity
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“When their question goes unanswered, children may rely more on other sources to resolve their question (Loyd and Gaither 2018; Zucker and Patterson 2018), such as their own intuition, peers, and media.”
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“Because the supremacy of whiteness is a pervasive feature of United States society, ethnic-racial socialization among White parents of White children is not conceptualized as a protective or promotive process (Loyd & Gaither, 2018).”
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“Parents and peers engage in these processes at different rates and in different relations to racial/ethnic identity (Nelson et al., 2018), and White parents, in particular, are more comfortable with ethnic socialization over racial socialization (Kim et al., 2013; Loyd & Gaither, 2018).”
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Mingo, T. M. (2024) · Professional School Counseling · doi:10.1177/2156759x241259948 · Cited by 2 · see citing works
“…as discussed by Wu et al. (2022), surround White parents ’ avoidance of discussing race with elementary-aged children Avoiding discussion about race and racism through race-neutral school environments can perpetuate prejudiced attitudes among children (Loyd & Gaither, 2018; Pahlke et al., 2012).”
Parental microprotections: Testing measurement equivalence in Black, Latinx, and White families
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“Indeed, explicit conversations help children garner a deeper understanding of various groups and make meaning of their own intergroup experiences (Loyd & Gaither, 2018).”
Background
Awareness of Racism Among Social Work Students in a Challenging Era
Hsu, H.-T., Givens, A., Bailey, R., Wilson, C., Rattliff, R., & Winter, V. R. (2022) · Advances in Social Work · doi:10.18060/24969 · Cited by 2 · see citing works
“Although research focusing on racial attitudes and awareness of racism in higher education (e.g., college students) has been abundant (Lopez, 2004; Loyd & Gaither, 2018; Smith et al., 2017), studies focusing on such a topic targeting social work students specifically, remain relatively scarce or…”
Background
Whiteness in the COVID-19 Pandemic: Who is Talking About Racism With Their Kids?
Leneman, K. B., Levasseur-Puhach, S., Gillespie, S., Gomez, I., Hall, G. C. N., & Roos, L. E. (2022) · Journal of Family Issues · doi:10.1177/0192513x221079328 · Cited by 4 · see citing works
“…White parents might feel unsure about expressly socializing their children about race from a young age, color-conscious racial socialization has been identified by critical race scholars as key for long-term societal change (Bonilla-Silva, 2006; Loyd & Gaither, 2018; Matlock & DiAngelo, 2015).”
BackgroundInfluential
Cultural Snapshots: A Method to Capture Social Contexts in Development of Prejudice and Stereotyping
Pauker, K., Brey, E. L., Lamer, S. A., & Max Weisbuch, A. (2018) · Advances in child development and behavior · doi:10.1016/bs.acdb.2018.11.002 · Cited by 4 · see citing works
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Niwa, E. Y., Kuchirko, Y. A., Bennet, A., Yigiter, F., Arevalo, K., Piñeiro‐Barrera, M., Voron, A., Alexakos, D., León, M. P. D., Eder, S., et al. (2026) · Journal of Family Studies · doi:10.1080/13229400.2026.2705247 · Cited by 1 · see citing works
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Ethno‐Religious Socialization Among Majority and Minority Group Children in a Post‐Conflict Society
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They Would get the ‘Heebeejeebees’: Indirect and Direct Family Socialization of Heteronormativity
Minniear, M. J., Smith, H., & Maisano, T. (2025) · Sexuality & Culture · doi:10.1007/s12119-025-10451-z · Cited by 2 · see citing works
Dismantling Whiteness: Integrating White Racial Socialization into Social Work Practice with Children and Families
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“…under-represented in racial socialization research—a gap shaped by both exclusionary research norms and methodological challenges; these include social desirability bias, measurement limitations, and cultural discomfort with race-related conversations (Hughes et al., 2006; Loyd & Gaither, 2018).”
Socialization of Gender Public Regard: Family Conversations, Practices and Routines
Halim, M. L., Gutiérrez, B. C., Ortiz-Payne, M., Han, K., Ahrens, C. E., & Leaper, C. (2025) · Sex Roles · doi:10.1007/s11199-025-01581-7 · Cited by 2 · see citing works
“Families of color in the United States are also more likely than White families to engage in preparation for racial bias given their minoritized social status (Hughes et al., 2023; Loyd & Gaither, 2018).”
Racial Socialization in White Parent-child Dyads: An Observational Approach
Zucker, J. K., & Patterson, M. M. (2025) · Journal of Child and Family Studies · doi:10.1007/s10826-025-03096-x · Cited by 1 · see citing works
“In addition, children are attentive to others ’ racial attitudes and instances of racial discrimination (Bigler & Wright, 2014; Loyd & Gaither, 2018) and these observations can shape their own racial attitudes (Bigler & Liben, 2006; Castelli et al., 2008, 2009).”
Making a case for race: Legal and psychological bases for considering ethnic and racial identity in parenting plan evaluations
Ajoku, C. (2024) · Family Court Review · doi:10.1111/fcre.12843 · Cited by 1 · see citing works
A symbolic interactionist model of White adolescents' digital critical racial literacy and digital anti‐racist action
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Authors: Loyd, A. B., & Gaither, S. E.
Affiliations: University of Illinois Chicago (US)
Duke University (US)
Corresponding author: Loyd, Aerika Brittian
ORCID: Loyd, Aerika Brittian
Gaither, Sarah E.
Venue: Journal of Applied Developmental Psychology
Publisher: Elsevier BV
Published: 2018-11
Volume: 59
Pages: 54-64
ISSN: 0193-3973 (ISSN-L)
DOI: 10.1016/j.appdev.2018.05.004
OpenAlex: W2810733851
Cited by: 170
References: 0
Citations by year: 2026: 17 · 2025: 26 · 2024: 31 · 2023: 21 · 2022: 27 · 2021: 23 · 2020: 6 · 2019: 14 · 2018: 5
FWCI: 27.30
Type: journal article
Language: en
Open access: closed
Licence: www.elsevier.com/tdm/userlicense/1.0/ (tdm)
www.elsevier.com/legal/tdmrep-license (tdm)
Locations: Journal of Applied Developmental Psychology (publishedVersion)
Funders: National Institute of Child Health and Human Development (K12HD055892)
National Institutes of Health Office of Research on Women's Health
Topics: Social Sciences › Sociology and Political Science › Racial and Ethnic Identity Research
Social Sciences › Sociology and Political Science › Social and Intergroup Psychology
Social Sciences › Sociology and Political Science › Critical Race Theory in Education
Keywords: ethnic-racial socialization, white youth, race talk, prejudice, stereotyping, inclusion, racial diversity, early childhood, early adulthood, socialization theory

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