Ethnic and Racial Identity in Adolescence: Implications for Psychosocial, Academic, and Health Outcomes

Rivas-Drake, Deborah; Seaton, Eleanor K; Markstrom, Carol; Quintana, Stephen; Syed, Moin; Lee, Richard M; Schwartz, Seth J; Umaña-Taylor, Adriana J; French, Sabine; Yip, Tiffany; Ethnic and Racial Identity in the 21st Century Study Group

doi:10.1111/cdev.12200

Cited by 840Racial and Ethnic Identity ResearchIdentity, Memory, and TherapySocial and Intergroup Psychology

Ethnic and Racial Identity in Adolescence: Implications for Psychosocial, Academic, and Health Outcomes

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Rivas-Drake, Deborah, Seaton, Eleanor K, Markstrom, Carol, Quintana, Stephen, Syed, Moin, Lee, Richard M, Schwartz, Seth J, Umaña-Taylor, Adriana J +3 more·2014·Child Development

DOI 10.1111/cdev.12200PMC PMC6673646

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Abstract

The construction of an ethnic or racial identity is considered an important developmental milestone for youth of color. This review summarizes research on links between ethnic and racial identity (ERI) with psychosocial, academic, and health risk outcomes among ethnic minority adolescents. With notable exceptions, aspects of ERI are generally associated with adaptive outcomes. ERI are generally beneficial for African American adolescents' adjustment across all three domains, whereas the evidence is somewhat mixed for Latino and American Indian youth. There is a dearth of research for academic and health risk outcomes among Asian American and Pacific Islander adolescents. The review concludes with suggestions for future research on ERI among minority youth.

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Among immigrant, racialised, marginalised, and Indigenous youth, cultural connectedness and strong or positive cultural identity help increase resilience, self-esteem, self-efficacy, self-clarity, life satisfaction, wellbeing, and mental health.
“Particularly among immigrant, racialised, marginalised, and Indigenous youth, 167 cultural connectedness and strong or positive cultural identity help increase resilience, 168,169 self-esteem, self-efficacy, self-clarity, 170,171 life satisfaction, wellbeing, and mental health. 167,170,171”
From The Lancet Psychiatry Commission on youth mental health (2024) · cites this paper as [170]
The Psychosocial Functioning and Mental Health sections (Latino Youth, African American Youth, and Native American Youth; pages unavailable) report associations of positive ethnic or racial identity with self-esteem, coping, psychological well-being, and fewer depressive symptoms. The Health Risk Outcomes section (Latino Youth; page unavailable) also reports an association with self-efficacy. The reviewed evidence is largely correlational and does not establish that cultural identity increases these outcomes; the passages do not substantiate self-clarity or life satisfaction specifically. (LLM, conf=0.86)
Experimental — accuracy not yet measured
Higher levels of ethnic identity have been associated with positive physical and mental health outcomes including less internalizing and externalizing risk behaviors across youth of various ethnic and racial backgrounds.
“Higher levels of ethnic identity have been associated with positive physical and mental health outcomes including less internalizing and externalizing risk behaviors across youth of various ethnic and racial backgrounds (Rivas-Drake et al., 2014; Smith and Silva, 2011; Umaña-Taylor et al., 2015).”
From Assessment of culture and environment in the Adolescent Brain and Cognitive Development Study: Rationale, description of measures, and early data (2018) · cites this paper as Rivas-Drake et al., 2014

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Substance use and sexual behavior among recent Hispanic immigrant adolescents: effects of parent-adolescent differential acculturation and communication
Schwartz, S. J., Unger, J. B., Rosiers, S. E. D., Huang, S., Baezconde-Garbanati, L., Lorenzo-Blanco, E. I., Villamar, J. A., Soto, D. W., Pattarroyo, M., & Szapocznik, J. (2012) · Drug and Alcohol Dependence · doi:10.1016/j.drugalcdep.2012.05.020 · Cited by 100 · see citing works
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Theory, Research, and Models
Cross, W. E., & Cross, T. B. (2007) · doi:10.1002/9781118269930.ch8 · Cited by 97 · see citing works
The Moderating Capacity of Racial Identity Between Perceived Discrimination and Psychological Well-Being Over Time Among African American Youth
Seaton, E. K., Neblett, E. W., Upton, R., Powell, W., & Sellers, R. M. (2011) · Child Development · doi:10.1111/j.1467-8624.2011.01651.x · Cited by 95 · see citing works
Self-citation
Multiculturalism as a dimension of school climate: The impact on the academic achievement of Asian American and Hispanic youth.
Chang, J., & Le, T. N. (2010) · Cultural Diversity & Ethnic Minority Psychology · doi:10.1037/a0020654 · Cited by 94 · see citing works
Integrating Racial and Ethnic Identity Research Into Developmental Understanding of Adolescents
Williams, J. L., Tolan, P. H., Durkee, M. I., Francois, A. G., & Anderson, R. E. (2012) · Child Development Perspectives · doi:10.1111/j.1750-8606.2012.00235.x · Cited by 93 · see citing works
Ethnic identity, self‐esteem, and perceived efficacy as mediators of the relation of supportive parenting to psychosocial outcomes among urban adolescents☆
Swenson, R. R., & Prelow, H. M. (2004) · Journal of Adolescence · doi:10.1016/j.adolescence.2004.09.005 · Cited by 92 · see citing works
Ethnic identity, sense of community, and psychological well‐being among northern plains American Indian youth
Kenyon, D. B., & Carter, J. S. (2010) · Journal of Community Psychology · doi:10.1002/jcop.20412 · Cited by 91 · see citing works
Culture and environment as predictors of alcohol abuse/dependence symptoms in American Indian youths
Yu, M., & Stiffman, A. R. (2007) · Addictive Behaviors · doi:10.1016/j.addbeh.2007.01.008 · Cited by 91 · see citing works
Ethnic Identity and Psychosocial Functioning in Navajo Adolescents
Jones, M. D., & Galliher, R. V. (2007) · Journal of Research on Adolescence · doi:10.1111/j.1532-7795.2007.00541.x · Cited by 86 · see citing works
A developmental perspective of the relationship of racial–ethnic identity to self-construct, achievement, and behavior in African American children.
Smith, C. O., Levine, D. W., Smith, E. P., Dumas, J. E., & Prinz, R. J. (2009) · Cultural Diversity & Ethnic Minority Psychology · doi:10.1037/a0015538 · Cited by 83 · see citing works
Ethnic Identity as a Predictor of Attitudes of Adolescents Toward Fighting
Arbona, C., Jackson, R. H., McCoy, A., & Blakely, C. H. (1999) · The Journal of Early Adolescence · doi:10.1177/0272431699019003002 · Cited by 81 · see citing works
Importance of race and ethnicity: An exploration of Asian, Black, Latino, and multiracial adolescent identity.
Charmaraman, L., & Grossman, J. M. (2010) · Cultural Diversity & Ethnic Minority Psychology · doi:10.1037/a0018668 · Cited by 80 · see citing works
Ethnic Identity, Neighborhood Risk, and Adolescent Drug and Sex Attitudes and Refusal Efficacy: The Urban African American Girls' Experience
Corneille, M. A., & Belgrave, F. Z. (2007) · Journal of Drug Education · doi:10.2190/uj17-34j7-u306-2822 · Cited by 80 · see citing works
School Engagement Among Urban Youth of Color
Perry, J. C. (2008) · Journal of Career Development · doi:10.1177/0894845308316293 · Cited by 80 · see citing works
Racial-ethnic self-schemas: Multidimensional identity-based motivation
Oyserman, D. (2008) · Journal of Research in Personality · doi:10.1016/j.jrp.2008.03.003 · Cited by 78 · see citing works
Preventing youth violence in a multicultural society.
(2006) · American Psychological Association eBooks · doi:10.1037/11380-000 · Cited by 75 · see citing works
Racial identity beliefs and academic achievement: does being black hold students back?
Harper, B. E., & Tuckman, B. W. (2006) · Social Psychology of Education · doi:10.1007/s11218-006-9001-z · Cited by 75 · see citing works
The Moderating Effects of Culture on Peer Deviance and Alcohol Use among High-Risk African-American Adolescents
Nasim, A., Belgrave, F. Z., Jagers, R. J., Wilson, K. D., & Owens, K. (2007) · Journal of Drug Education · doi:10.2190/de.37.3.g · Cited by 72 · see citing works
Multiculturalism and subjective happiness as mediated by cultural and relational variables.
Le, T. N., Lai, M. H., & Wallen, J. (2009) · Cultural Diversity & Ethnic Minority Psychology · doi:10.1037/a0015507 · Cited by 66 · see citing works
The role of ethnic identity and self-construal in coping among African American and Caucasian American seventh graders: an exploratory analysis of within-group variance.
Zaff, J. F., Blount, R. L., Phillips, L. D., & Cohen, L. L. (2002) · PubMed · Cited by 59 · see citing works
Self-concept of African-American male youth: Self-esteem and ethnic identity
Blash, R. R., & Unger, D. G. (1995) · Journal of Child and Family Studies · doi:10.1007/bf02233968 · Cited by 58 · see citing works
The Measurement of Racial/Ethnic Identity in Children
Byrd, C. M. (2011) · Journal of Black Psychology · doi:10.1177/0095798410397544 · Cited by 58 · see citing works
Ego Development and Ethnic Identity Formation in Rural American Indian Adolescents
Newman, D. L. (2005) · Child Development · doi:10.1111/j.1467-8624.2005.00874.x · Cited by 53 · see citing works
Gender Differences in Cambodian Delinquency: The Role of Ethnic Identity, Parental Discipline, and Peer Delinquency
Go, C. G., & Le, T. N. (2005) · Crime & Delinquency · doi:10.1177/0011128704273466 · Cited by 52 · see citing works
Public Ethnic Regard and Academic Adjustment Among Latino Adolescents
Rivas‐Drake, D. (2010) · Journal of Research on Adolescence · doi:10.1111/j.1532-7795.2010.00700.x · Cited by 47 · see citing works
Self-citation
Prevention Through Empowerment in a Native American Community
Petoskey, E. L., Stelle, K. R. V., & Jong, J. A. D. (1998) · Drugs & Society · doi:10.1300/j023v12n01_10 · Cited by 45 · see citing works
Examining Relationships Between Ethnic Identity, Family Environment, and Psychological Outcomes for African American Adolescents
Street, J. C., Harris‐Britt, A., & Walker-Barnes, C. J. (2008) · Journal of Child and Family Studies · doi:10.1007/s10826-008-9245-7 · Cited by 45 · see citing works
The Racial Identity and Cultural Orientation of Lumbee American Indian High School Students.
Bryant, A., & LaFromboise, T. D. (2005) · Cultural Diversity & Ethnic Minority Psychology · doi:10.1037/1099-9809.11.1.82 · Cited by 44 · see citing works
Cultural Resources and School Engagement among African American Youths: The Role of Racial Socialization and Ethnic Identity
Bennett, M. D. (2006) · Children & Schools · doi:10.1093/cs/28.4.197 · Cited by 44 · see citing works
Korean-Americans: past, present, and future
(2005) · Choice Reviews Online · doi:10.5860/choice.42-4828 · Cited by 43 · see citing works
Public Ethnic Regard and Perceived Socioeconomic Stratification: Associations With Well-Being Among Dominican and Black American Youth
Rivas-Drake, D., Hughes, D., & Way, N. (2009) · The Journal of Early Adolescence · doi:10.1177/0272431608324479 · Cited by 43 · see citing works
Self-citation
Gendered Academic Adjustment among Asian American Adolescents in an Emerging Immigrant Community
Kiang, L., Supple, A. J., Stein, G. L., & González, L. (2011) · Journal of Youth and Adolescence · doi:10.1007/s10964-011-9697-8 · Cited by 41 · see citing works
Who is Likely to Help and Hurt? Profiles of African American Adolescents with Prosocial and Aggressive Behavior
Belgrave, F. Z., Nguyen, A. B., Johnson, J. L., & Hood, K. B. (2010) · Journal of Youth and Adolescence · doi:10.1007/s10964-010-9608-4 · Cited by 39 · see citing works
Stability and Change in Private and Public Ethnic Regard Among African American, Puerto Rican, Dominican, and Chinese American Early Adolescents
Hughes, D. L., Way, N., & Rivas‐Drake, D. (2011) · Journal of Research on Adolescence · doi:10.1111/j.1532-7795.2011.00744.x · Cited by 36 · see citing works
Self-citation
A mediated moderation model of cigarette use among Mexican American youth
Morgan‐López, A. A., Castro, F. G., Chassin, L., & MacKinnon, D. P. (2003) · Addictive Behaviors · doi:10.1016/s0306-4603(01)00262-3 · Cited by 35 · see citing works
Ethnic Identity, Social Group Membership, and Youth Violence.
French, S. E., Kim, T. E., & Pillado, O. (2006) · American Psychological Association eBooks · doi:10.1037/11380-002 · Cited by 32 · see citing works
Self-citation
Influences on Adolescent African American Females' Global Self-Esteem
Turnage, B. F. (2004) · Journal of Ethnic & Cultural Diversity in Social Work · doi:10.1300/j051v13n04_02 · Cited by 31 · see citing works
Ethnic Identity and Substance Use Among Mexican-Heritage Preadolescents
Kulis, S., Marsiglia, F. F., Kopak, A. M., Olmsted, M. E., & Crossman, A. (2010) · The Journal of Early Adolescence · doi:10.1177/0272431610384484 · Cited by 31 · see citing works
Peer status in an ethnic context: Associations with African American adolescents' ethnic identity
Rock, P. F., Cole, D. J., Houshyar, S., Lythcott, M., & Prinstein, M. J. (2011) · Journal of Applied Developmental Psychology · doi:10.1016/j.appdev.2011.03.002 · Cited by 28 · see citing works
The Impact of Self-Components on Attitudes Toward Sex Among African American Preadolescent Girls: The Moderating Role of Menarche
Townsend, T. G. (2002) · Sex Roles · doi:10.1023/a:1020675518819 · Cited by 27 · see citing works
Maternal Influence on Adolescent Self-Esteem, Ethnic Pride and Intentions to Engage in Risk Behavior in Latino Youth
Guilamo‐Ramos, V. (2009) · Prevention Science · doi:10.1007/s11121-009-0138-9 · Cited by 27 · see citing works
Ethnic Identity in African American and European American Preadolescents
Holmes, K. J., & Lochman, J. E. (2008) · The Journal of Early Adolescence · doi:10.1177/0272431608322955 · Cited by 22 · see citing works
The Multidimensionality of Ethnic Identity Among Urban High School Youth
Borrero, N. E., & Yeh, C. J. (2011) · Identity · doi:10.1080/15283488.2011.555978 · Cited by 21 · see citing works
Racial Identity Attitudes and School Performance among African American High School Students: An Exploratory Study.
Sandoval, S. R., Gutkin, T. B., & Naumann, W. C. (1997) · Research in the schools · Cited by 9 · see citing works
FAMILY BEHAVIOR, A STUDY OF HUMAN RELATIONS
Rood, D. (1936) · AJN American Journal of Nursing · doi:10.1097/00000446-193610000-00031 · Cited by 3 · see citing works
Review of Family behavior. A study of human relations.
Stonequist, E. V. (1937) · Journal of Abnormal & Social Psychology · doi:10.1037/h0053392 · Cited by 1 · see citing works

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Resilience Theory and Research on Children and Families: Past, Present, and Promise
Masten, A. S. (2018) · Journal of Family Theory & Review · doi:10.1111/jftr.12255 · Cited by 1,134 · see citing works
The Impact of Racism on Child and Adolescent Health
Trent, M., Dooley, D. G., Dougé, J., HEALTH, S. O. A., COUNCIL ON COMMUNITY PEDIATRICS, COMMITTEE ON ADOLESCENCE, Cavanaugh, R. M., Lacroix, A. E., Fanburg, J., Rahmandar, M. H., et al. (2019) · Pediatrics · doi:10.1542/peds.2019-1765 · Cited by 1,002 · see citing works
Resilience in Development and Psychopathology: Multisystem Perspectives
Masten, A. S., Lucke, C. M., Nelson, K. M., & Stallworthy, I. C. (2021) · Annual Review of Clinical Psychology · doi:10.1146/annurev-clinpsy-081219-120307 · Cited by 794 · see citing works
Transformative Social and Emotional Learning (SEL): Toward SEL in Service of Educational Equity and Excellence
Jagers, R. J., Rivas‐Drake, D., & Williams, B. V. (2019) · Educational Psychologist · doi:10.1080/00461520.2019.1623032 · Cited by 778 · see citing works
Self-citation
The Lancet Psychiatry Commission on youth mental health
McGorry, P. D., Mei, C., Dalal, N., Alvarez-Jimenez, M., Blakemore, S.-J., Browne, V., Dooley, B., Hickie, I. B., Jones, P. B., McDaid, D., et al. (2024) · The Lancet Psychiatry · doi:10.1016/s2215-0366(24)00163-9 · Cited by 663 · see citing works
Feeling Good, Happy, and Proud: A Meta-Analysis of Positive Ethnic–Racial Affect and Adjustment
Rivas-Drake, D., Syed, M., Umaña-Taylor, A., Markstrom, C., French, S., Schwartz, S. J., Lee, R., & Ethnic and Racial Identity in the 21st Century Study Group (2014) · Child Development · doi:10.1111/cdev.12175 · Cited by 294 · see citing works
Self-citation
An integrated developmental model for studying identity content in context
Galliher, R. V., McLean, K. C., & Syed, M. (2017) · Developmental Psychology · doi:10.1037/dev0000299 · Cited by 277 · see citing works
Self-citation
Parental ethnic–racial socialization practices and the construction of children of color’s ethnic–racial identity: A research synthesis and meta-analysis.
Huguley, J. P., Wang, M., Vasquez, A. C., & Guo, J. (2019) · Psychological Bulletin · doi:10.1037/bul0000187 · Cited by 267 · see citing works
Assessment of culture and environment in the Adolescent Brain and Cognitive Development Study: Rationale, description of measures, and early data
Zucker, R. A., Gonzalez, R., Feldstein Ewing, S. W., Paulus, M. P., Arroyo, J., Fuligni, A., Morris, A. S., Sanchez, M., & Wills, T. (2018) · Developmental Cognitive Neuroscience · doi:10.1016/j.dcn.2018.03.004 · Cited by 221 · see citing works
“Higher levels of ethnic identity have been associated with positive physical and mental health outcomes including less internalizing and externalizing risk behaviors across youth of various ethnic and racial backgrounds (Rivas-Drake et al., 2014; Smith and Silva, 2011; Umaña-Taylor et al., 2015).”
Background
Ethnic/Racial Identity—A Double-Edged Sword? Associations With Discrimination and Psychological Outcomes
Yip, T. (2018) · Current Directions in Psychological Science · doi:10.1177/0963721417739348 · Cited by 206 · see citing works
Self-citation
Unraveling the Complexity of Critical Consciousness, Political Efficacy, and Political Action Among Marginalized Adolescents
Diemer, M. A., & Rapa, L. J. (2015) · Child Development · doi:10.1111/cdev.12446 · Cited by 196 · see citing works
Where do we go from here in academic motivation theory and research? Some reflections and recommendations for future work
Wigfield, A., & Koenka, A. C. (2020) · Contemporary Educational Psychology · doi:10.1016/j.cedpsych.2020.101872 · Cited by 192 · see citing works
What Makes Systemic Racism<i>Systemic</i>?
Bonilla‐Silva, E. (2021) · Sociological Inquiry · doi:10.1111/soin.12420 · Cited by 186 · see citing works
A Lifespan Model of Ethnic-Racial Identity
Williams, C. D., Byrd, C. M., Quintana, S. M., Anicama, C., Kiang, L., Umaña-Taylor, A. J., Calzada, E. J., Pabón Gautier, M., Ejesi, K., Tuitt, N. R., et al. (2020) · Research in Human Development · doi:10.1080/15427609.2020.1831882 · Cited by 182 · see citing works
Self-citation
A universal intervention program increases ethnic-racial identity exploration and resolution to predict adolescent psychosocial functioning one year later
Umaña-Taylor, A. J., Kornienko, O., Douglass Bayless, S., & Updegraff, K. A. (2018) · Journal of Youth and Adolescence · doi:10.1007/s10964-017-0766-5 · Cited by 171 · see citing works
Self-citation
Latino adolescents’ perceived discrimination in online and offline settings: an examination of cultural risk and protective factors
Umaña-Taylor, A. J., Tynes, B. M., Toomey, R. B., Williams, D. R., & Mitchell, K. J. (2015) · Developmental Psychology · doi:10.1037/a0038432 · Cited by 170 · see citing works
Self-citation
Racial/ethnic socialization for White youth: What we know and future directions
Loyd, A. B., & Gaither, S. E. (2018) · Journal of Applied Developmental Psychology · doi:10.1016/j.appdev.2018.05.004 · Cited by 170 · see citing works
Future Directions in Research on Racism-Related Stress and Racial-Ethnic Protective Factors for Black Youth
Jones, S. C. T., & Neblett, E. W. (2016) · Journal of Clinical Child & Adolescent Psychology · doi:10.1080/15374416.2016.1146991 · Cited by 167 · see citing works
Racial Identity, Racial Discrimination, and Classroom Engagement Outcomes Among Black Girls and Boys in Predominantly Black and Predominantly White School Districts
Leath, S. C., Mathews, C. J., Harrison, A., & Chavous, T. M. (2019) · American Educational Research Journal · doi:10.3102/0002831218816955 · Cited by 161 · see citing works
Mapping the Intersections of Adolescents’ Ethnic-Racial Identity and Critical Consciousness
Mathews, C. J., Medina, M. A., Bañales, J., Pinetta, B. J., Marchand, A. D., Agi, A. C., Miller-Tejada, S., Hoffman, A. J., Diemer, M. A., & Rivas‐Drake, D. (2019) · Adolescent Research Review · doi:10.1007/s40894-019-00122-0 · Cited by 153 · see citing works
Self-citation
Discrimination and academic (dis)engagement of ethnic-racial minority students: a social identity threat perspective
Verkuyten, M., Thijs, J. T., & Gharaei, N. (2019) · Social Psychology of Education · doi:10.1007/s11218-018-09476-0 · Cited by 142 · see citing works
Peer Attachment and Youth Internalizing Problems: A Meta-Analysis
Gorrese, A. (2015) · Child & Youth Care Forum · doi:10.1007/s10566-015-9333-y · Cited by 141 · see citing works
Effects of Racism on Child Development: Advancing Antiracist Developmental Science
Iruka, I. U., Gardner‐Neblett, N., Telfer, N. A., Ibekwe‐Okafor, N., Curenton, S. M., Sims, J., Sansbury, A. B., & Neblett, E. W. (2022) · Annual Review of Developmental Psychology · doi:10.1146/annurev-devpsych-121020-031339 · Cited by 138 · see citing works
Do dimensions of ethnic identity mediate the association between perceived ethnic group discrimination and depressive symptoms?
Loyd, A. B., Kim, S. Y., Armenta, B. E., Lee, R. M., Umaña‐Taylor, A. J., Schwartz, S. J., Villalta, I. K., Zamboanga, B. L., Weisskirch, R. S., Juang, L. P., et al. (2014) · Cultural Diversity & Ethnic Minority Psychology · doi:10.1037/a0037531 · Cited by 133 · see citing works
Self-citation
The Psychological and Academic Costs of School-Based Racial and Ethnic Microaggressions
Keels, M., Durkee, M. I., & Hope, E. C. (2017) · American Educational Research Journal · doi:10.3102/0002831217722120 · Cited by 133 · see citing works
Sexual minority youth of color: A content analysis and critical review of the literature
Toomey, R. B., Huynh, V. W., Jones, S. K., Lee, S., & Revels-Macalinao, M. (2016) · Journal of Gay & Lesbian Mental Health · doi:10.1080/19359705.2016.1217499 · Cited by 132 · see citing works
Ethnic Diversity and Inclusive School Environments
Nishina, A., Lewis, J. A., Bellmore, A. D., & Witkow, M. R. (2019) · Educational Psychologist · doi:10.1080/00461520.2019.1633923 · Cited by 125 · see citing works
Ethnic identification, discrimination, and mental and physical health among Syrian refugees: The moderating role of identity needs
Çelebi, E. Y., Verkuyten, M., & Bağci, S. Ç. (2017) · European Journal of Social Psychology · doi:10.1002/ejsp.2299 · Cited by 121 · see citing works
Ethnic-Racial Identity and Friendships in Early Adolescence
Rivas‐Drake, D., Umaña‐Taylor, A. J., Schaefer, D. R., & Medina, M. A. (2017) · Child Development · doi:10.1111/cdev.12790 · Cited by 120 · see citing works
Self-citation
Perceived racial discrimination and racial identity profiles among African American adolescents.
Seaton, E. K. (2009) · Cultural Diversity & Ethnic Minority Psychology · doi:10.1037/a0015506 · Cited by 111 · see citing works
Self-citation
An ecological approach to understanding the developing brain: Examples linking poverty, parenting, neighborhoods, and the brain.
Hyde, L. W., Gard, A. M., Tomlinson, R. C., Burt, S. A., Mitchell, C. M., & Monk, C. S. (2020) · American Psychologist · doi:10.1037/amp0000741 · Cited by 111 · see citing works
Who Am I, Who Are We? Erikson and a Transactional Approach to Identity Research
Rogers, L. O. (2018) · Identity · doi:10.1080/15283488.2018.1523728 · Cited by 107 · see citing works
The Associations Between Cultural Identity and Mental Health Outcomes for Indigenous Māori Youth in New Zealand
Williams, A. D., Clark, T. C., & Lewycka, S. O. (2018) · Frontiers in Public Health · doi:10.3389/fpubh.2018.00319 · Cited by 107 · see citing works
Race-Based Humor and Peer Group Dynamics in Adolescence: Bystander Intervention and Social Exclusion
Mulvey, K. L., Palmer, S. B., & Abrams, D. (2016) · Child Development · doi:10.1111/cdev.12600 · Cited by 104 · see citing works
The Study and Prevention of Alcohol and Other Drug Misuse Among Migrants: Toward a Transnational Theory of Cultural Stress
Salas‐Wright, C. P., & Schwartz, S. J. (2018) · International Journal of Mental Health and Addiction · doi:10.1007/s11469-018-0023-5 · Cited by 104 · see citing works
Self-citation
Mental Health Outcomes of Discrimination among College Students on a Predominately White Campus: A Prospective Study
Jochman, J. C., Cheadle, J. E., Goosby, B. J., Tomaso, C. C., Kozikowski, C. B., & Nelson, T. D. (2019) · Socius Sociological Research for a Dynamic World · doi:10.1177/2378023119842728 · Cited by 104 · see citing works
A Brief Form of the Ethnic Identity Scale: Development and Empirical Validation
Douglass, S., & Umaña‐Taylor, A. J. (2015) · Identity · doi:10.1080/15283488.2014.989442 · Cited by 102 · see citing works
Self-citation
Intergroup Contact Attitudes Across Peer Networks in School: Selection, Influence, and Implications for Cross-Group Friendships
Rivas‐Drake, D., Saleem, M., Schaefer, D. R., Medina, M. A., & Jagers, R. J. (2018) · Child Development · doi:10.1111/cdev.13061 · Cited by 100 · see citing works
Self-citation
From deficit to benefit: Highlighting lower-SES students' background-specific strengths reinforces their academic persistence
Hernandez, I. A., Silverman, D. M., & Destin, M. (2020) · Journal of Experimental Social Psychology · doi:10.1016/j.jesp.2020.104080 · Cited by 97 · see citing works
Young children’s ethnic–racial identity moderates the impact of early discrimination experiences on child behavior problems.
Marcelo, A. K., & Yates, T. M. (2018) · Cultural Diversity & Ethnic Minority Psychology · doi:10.1037/cdp0000220 · Cited by 95 · see citing works
Toward a Better Understanding of African American Families: Development of the Sociocultural Family Stress Model
Smith, S. M., & Landor, A. M. (2018) · Journal of Family Theory & Review · doi:10.1111/jftr.12260 · Cited by 89 · see citing works
The Nature and Consequences of Essentialist Beliefs About Race in Early Childhood
Mandalaywala, T. M., Ranger-Murdock, G., Amodio, D. M., & Rhodes, M. (2018) · Child Development · doi:10.1111/cdev.13008 · Cited by 88 · see citing works
Acculturation, discrimination, and depression among unauthorized Latinos/as in the United States.
Cobb, C. L., Xie, D., Meca, A., & Schwartz, S. J. (2016) · Cultural Diversity & Ethnic Minority Psychology · doi:10.1037/cdp0000118 · Cited by 83 · see citing works
Self-citation
Further Conceptualizing Ethnic and Racial Identity Research: The Social Identity Approach and Its Dynamic Model
Verkuyten, M. (2016) · Child Development · doi:10.1111/cdev.12555 · Cited by 83 · see citing works
Pathway of protection: Ethnic identity, self-esteem, and substance use among multiracial youth
Fisher, S. D., Zapolski, T. C. B., Sheehan, C., & Barnes-Najor, J. V. (2017) · Addictive Behaviors · doi:10.1016/j.addbeh.2017.03.003 · Cited by 82 · see citing works
Development and initial validation of the short critical consciousness scale (CCS-S)
Rapa, L. J., Bolding, C. W., & Jamil, F. M. (2020) · Journal of Applied Developmental Psychology · doi:10.1016/j.appdev.2020.101164 · Cited by 81 · see citing works
The Potential for Youth Programs to Promote African American Youth's Development of Ethnic and Racial Identity
Loyd, A. B., & Williams, B. V. (2016) · Child Development Perspectives · doi:10.1111/cdep.12204 · Cited by 80 · see citing works
Ethnic-Racial Identity and Adolescents’ Positive Development in the Context of Ethnic-Racial Marginalization: Unpacking Risk and Resilience
Umaña‐Taylor, A. J., & Rivas‐Drake, D. (2021) · Human Development · doi:10.1159/000519631 · Cited by 80 · see citing works
Self-citation
Personal and cultural identity development in recently immigrated Hispanic adolescents: Links with psychosocial functioning.
Meca, A., Sabet, R. F., Farrelly, C. M., Benitez, C. G., Schwartz, S. J., Gonzales-Backen, M., Lorenzo-Blanco, E. I., Unger, J. B., Zamboanga, B. L., Baezconde-Garbanati, L., et al. (2017) · Cultural Diversity & Ethnic Minority Psychology · doi:10.1037/cdp0000129 · Cited by 79 · see citing works
Self-citation
“Another Kind of Swede”
Gyberg, F., Frisén, A., Syed, M., Wängqvist, M., & Svensson, Y. (2017) · Emerging Adulthood · doi:10.1177/2167696817690087 · Cited by 78 · see citing works
Self-citation
Promoting Resilience Among African American Girls: Racial Identity as a Protective Factor
Butler‐Barnes, S. T., Leath, S. C., Williams, A. D., Byrd, C. M., Carter, R., & Chavous, T. M. (2017) · Child Development · doi:10.1111/cdev.12995 · Cited by 76 · see citing works
The role of racial/ethnic identity in the association between racial discrimination and psychiatric disorders: A buffer or exacerbator?
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Leveraging Ethnic-Racial Identity in Support of Adolescent Psychosocial Adjustment
Wantchekon, K. (2021) · Digital Access to Scholarship at Harvard (DASH) (Harvard University)

Authors: Rivas-Drake, D., Seaton, E. K., Markstrom, C., Quintana, S., Syed, M., Lee, R. M., Schwartz, S. J., Umaña-Taylor, A. J., French, S., Yip, T., & Ethnic and Racial Identity in the 21st Century Study Group
Affiliations: Brown University
University of North Carolina at Chapel Hill (US)
West Virginia University (US)
University of Wisconsin System (US)
University of Minnesota (US)
University of Miami (US)
Arizona State University
University of Illinois Chicago (US)
Fordham University (US)
ORCID: Seaton, Eleanor K
Syed, Moin
Lee, Richard M
Schwartz, Seth J
Yip, Tiffany
Venue: Child Development
Publisher: Oxford University Press (OUP)
Published: 2014-01-01
Volume: 85
Issue: 1
Pages: 40-57
ISSN: 0009-3920 (ISSN-L)
1467-8624
DOI: 10.1111/cdev.12200
PMC: PMC6673646
OpenAlex: W2089277053
Cited by: 832
References: 131
Citations by year: 2026: 69 · 2025: 104 · 2024: 83 · 2023: 80 · 2022: 76 · 2021: 89 · 2020: 70 · 2019: 72 · 2018: 60 · 2017: 59 · 2016: 39 · 2015: 21 · 2014: 8
FWCI: 14.09
Type: journal article
Language: en
Open access: green
www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov
Licence: academic.oup.com/pages/standard-publication-reuse-rights (vor)
onlinelibrary.wiley.com/termsAndConditions#vor (vor, 33 d)
Locations: Child Development (publishedVersion)
PubMed (publishedVersion)
PubMed Central (acceptedVersion)
Funders: Society for Research in Child Development
Society for Research on Adolescence
APA Division 45
Center for the Study of Ethnicity and Race in America
Center for the Study of Human Development
T. Denny Sanford School of Social and Family Dynamics at Arizona State University
Topics: Social Sciences › Sociology and Political Science › Racial and Ethnic Identity Research
Social Sciences › Psychology › Developmental and Educational Psychology › Identity, Memory, and Therapy
Social Sciences › Sociology and Political Science › Social and Intergroup Psychology
Keywords: ethnic identity, racial identity, adolescents, youth of color, psychosocial adjustment, educational outcomes, African American adolescents, Latino adolescents, American Indian adolescents, identity construction
MeSH terms: Adolescent, Adolescent Behavior, Asian, Black or African American, Hispanic or Latino, Humans, Indians, North American, Social Identification

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Ethnic and Racial Identity in Adolescence: Implications for Psychosocial, Academic, and Health Outcomes

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