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Muscle morphology and performance in master athletes: A systematic review and meta-analyses
Open accessAbstract
INTRODUCTION The extent to which chronic exercise training preserves age-related decrements in physical function, muscle strength, mass and morphology is unclear. Our aim was to conduct a systematic review of the literature to determine to what extent chronically trained master athletes (strength/power and endurance) preserve levels of physical function, muscle strength, muscle mass and morphology in older age, compared with older and younger controls and young trained individuals. METHODS The systematic data search included Medline, EMBASE, SPORTDiscus, CINAHL and Web of Science databases. INCLUSION CRITERIA i) master athletes mean exercise training duration ≥20 years ii) master athletes mean age of cohort >59 years) iii) at least one measurement of muscle mass/volume/fibre-type morphology and/or strength/physical function. RESULTS Fifty-five eligible studies were identified. Meta-analyses were carried out on maximal aerobic capacity, maximal voluntary contraction and body composition. Master endurance athletes (42.0 ± 6.6 ml kg-1 min-1) exhibited VO2max values comparable with young healthy controls (43.1 ± 6.8 ml kg-1 min-1, P = .84), greater than older controls (27.1 ± 4.3 ml kg-1 min-1, P < 0.01) and master strength/power athletes (26.5 ± 2.3 mlkg-1 min-1, P < 0.01), and lower than young endurance trained individuals (60.0 ± 5.4 ml kg-1 min-1, P < 0.01). Master strength/power athletes (0.60 (0.28-0.93) P < 0.01) and young controls (0.71 (0.06-1.36) P < 0.05) were significantly stronger compared with the other groups. Body fat% was greater in master endurance athletes than young endurance trained (-4.44% (-8.44 to -0.43) P < 0.05) but lower compared with older controls (7.11% (5.70-8.52) P < 0.01). CONCLUSION Despite advancing age, this review suggests that chronic exercise training preserves physical function, muscular strength and body fat levels similar to that of young, healthy individuals in an exercise mode-specific manner.
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TL;DR
This systematic review and meta-analysis of 55 studies examined whether chronically trained master athletes (endurance and strength/power) preserve physical function, muscle strength, muscle mass and morphology in older age relative to older and younger controls and young trained individuals. The authors conclude that lifelong training preserves physical function, muscular strength and body fat at levels similar to young healthy individuals, in an exercise-mode-specific manner.
Key findings
- Master endurance athletes had VO2max (42.0 ± 6.6 ml·kg⁻¹·min⁻¹) comparable to young healthy controls (43.1 ± 6.8 ml·kg⁻¹·min⁻¹, P = .84), higher than older controls (27.1 ± 4.3 ml·kg⁻¹·min⁻¹, P < 0.01) and master strength/power athletes (26.5 ± 2.3 ml·kg⁻¹·min⁻¹, P < 0.01), and lower than young endurance-trained individuals (60.0 ± 5.4 ml·kg⁻¹·min⁻¹, P < 0.01).
- Master strength/power athletes (0.60, 0.28–0.93, P < 0.01) and young controls (0.71, 0.06–1.36, P < 0.05) were significantly stronger than the other groups.
- Body fat% was higher in master endurance athletes than in young endurance-trained individuals (−4.44%, −8.44 to −0.43, P < 0.05) but lower than in older controls (7.11%, 5.70–8.52, P < 0.01).
- Overall, the review suggests chronic training preserves physical function, muscular strength and body fat levels similar to those of young, healthy individuals, in an exercise-mode-specific manner.
Methods
- Systematic review with meta-analyses; searches of Medline, EMBASE, SPORTDiscus, CINAHL and Web of Science.
- Inclusion criteria: master athletes with mean exercise training duration ≥20 years; mean cohort age >59 years; and at least one measurement of muscle mass/volume/fibre-type morphology and/or strength/physical function.
- Fifty-five eligible studies were identified; meta-analyses were performed on maximal aerobic capacity (VO2max), maximal voluntary contraction and body composition, comparing master athletes with older controls, younger controls and young trained individuals.
Limitations
- Not stated in the paper (the provided text reports no limitations section).
- Evident from the text: the abstract does not report heterogeneity statistics, risk-of-bias assessment, or the number of studies contributing to each meta-analysis, so the robustness of the pooled estimates cannot be judged from this record.
- Evident from the text: pooled comparisons are cross-sectional between groups (master athletes vs. older/younger controls and young trained individuals), which cannot establish causality for the observed preservation of function and morphology.
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In the paper
“Master endurance athletes (42.0 ± 6.6 ml kg−1 min−1) exhibited VO2max values comparable with young healthy controls (43.1 ± 6.8 ml kg−1 min−1, P = .84)”
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In the paper
“but lower compared with older controls (7.11% (5.70–8.52) P < 0.01)”
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In the paper
“greater than older controls (27.1 ± 4.3 ml kg−1 min−1, P < 0.01) and master strength/power athletes (26.5 ± 2.3 mlkg−1 min−1, P < 0.01)”
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In the paper
“Body fat% was greater in master endurance athletes than young endurance trained (−4.44% (−8.44 to −0.43) P < 0.05)”
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In the paper
“greater than older controls (27.1 ± 4.3 ml kg−1 min−1, P < 0.01)”
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Claims other papers make about this one
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In the citing paper
“While many studies have explored age-related declines in endurance performance, comparatively few reviews [3,19] or meta-analyses [20] have summarized these effects in women masters athletes.”
From Effects of Aging on Determinants of Endurance Performance in Women Masters Athletes: A Scoping Review (2026) · cites this paper as [20]
In the citing paper
“Although several reviews examined age-, sex- and gender-related changes in endurance or strength outcomes, no reviews specifically focused on women masters athletes [20,30,31,32] or addressed menopause as a subtopic in this field.”
From Effects of Aging on Determinants of Endurance Performance in Women Masters Athletes: A Scoping Review (2026) · cites this paper as [20]
In the citing paper
“However, the available evidence regarding muscle mass and function of older Masters runners is conflicting.”
From Comparison of Muscle Function, Bone Mineral Density and Body Composition of Early Starting and Later Starting Older Masters Athletes (2019) · cites this paper as Mckendry et al., 2018
In the citing paper
“We did not measure knee extensor maximal force, but the available evidence is conflicting over the possibility that Master endurance runners have greater maximal force, mainly due to heterogeneity in study populations and several studies with low sample size (Mckendry et al., 2018).”
From Comparison of Muscle Function, Bone Mineral Density and Body Composition of Early Starting and Later Starting Older Masters Athletes (2019) · cites this paper as Mckendry et al., 2018
In the citing paper
“a comprehensive review and meta-analysis by McKendry et al. [8] demonstrated that Master athletes’ aerobic capacity, muscle strength, and body composition are generally on par with young, untrained adults.”
From Protein Requirements for Master Athletes: Just Older Versions of Their Younger Selves (2021) · cites this paper as McKendry et al. [8]
Citations
Cites
Preferred Reporting Items for Systematic Reviews and Meta-Analyses: The PRISMA Statement
Moher, D., Liberati, A., Tetzlaff, J., Altman, D. G., & The PRISMA Group (2009) · PLoS Medicine · doi:10.1371/journal.pmed.1000097 · Cited by 64,042
Preferred reporting items for systematic reviews and meta-analyses: the PRISMA Statement.
(2009) · PubMed Central · Cited by 44,859
Sarcopenia: European consensus on definition and diagnosis
Cruz-Jentoft, A. J., Baeyens, J. P., Bauer, J. M., Boirie, Y., Cederholm, T., Landi, F., Martin, F. C., Michel, J.-P., Rolland, Y., Schneider, S. M., et al. (2010) · Age and Ageing · doi:10.1093/ageing/afq034 · Cited by 11,601
Progression Models in Resistance Training for Healthy Adults
(2009) · Medicine & Science in Sports & Exercise · doi:10.1249/mss.0b013e3181915670 · Cited by 4,332
Skeletal muscle mass and distribution in 468 men and women aged 18–88 yr
Janssen, I., Heymsfield, S. B., Wang, Z., & Ross, R. (2000) · Journal of Applied Physiology · doi:10.1152/jappl.2000.89.1.81 · Cited by 3,087
Goodpaster, B. H., Park, S. W., Harris, T. B., Kritchevsky, S. B., Nevitt, M., Schwartz, A. V., Simonsick, E. M., Tylavsky, F. A., Visser, M., Newman, A. B., et al. (2006) · The Journals of Gerontology Series A: Biological Sciences and Medical Sciences · doi:10.1093/gerona/61.10.1059 · Cited by 3,083 · cited 1×
“However, it is generally accepted that, similar to VO2max, there is an inevitable decline in muscle strength/power with ageing (Goodpaster et al., 2006; Rittweger et al., 2009), evidenced longitudinally in the performance decrements of master power vs.”
BackgroundProgression Models in Resistance Training for Healthy Adults
(2002) · Medicine and Science in Sports and Exercise · doi:10.1097/00005768-200202000-00027 · Cited by 2,979
Lack of Exercise Is a Major Cause of Chronic Diseases
Booth, F. W., Roberts, C. K., & Laye, M. J. (2012) · Comprehensive Physiology · doi:10.1002/cphy.c110025 · Cited by 2,575
Ageing as a Risk Factor for Disease
Niccoli, T., & Partridge, L. (2012) · Current Biology · doi:10.1016/j.cub.2012.07.024 · Cited by 1,831
Invited Review: Aging and sarcopenia
Doherty, T. J. (2003) · Journal of Applied Physiology · doi:10.1152/japplphysiol.00347.2003 · Cited by 1,764
Research works printed but not linked: 5
- Carrick-Ranson, 2014, The effect of lifelong exercise dose on cardiovascular function during exercise, J. Appl. Physiol., 116, 736, 10.1152/japplphysiol.00342.2013 · DOI · Paper page
- Kim, 2016, Gender-specific associations between muscle and bone losses in longitudinal changes of muscle mass and strength, and bone mass, Osteoporosis Int., 27, S384
- Power, 2010, Motor unit number estimates in masters runners: use it or lose it?, Med. Sci. Sports Exerc., 42, 1644, 10.1249/mss.0b013e3181d6f9e9 · DOI
- Sonn, 1996, Longitudinal studies of dependence in daily life activities among elderly persons – methodological development, use of assistive devices and relation to impairments and functional limitations, Scand. J. Rehabil. Med., 1
- Tarpenning, 2004, Endurance training delays age of decline in leg strength and muscle morphology, Med. Sci. Sports Exerc., 36, 74, 10.1249/01.mss.0000106179.73735.a6 · DOI
Cited by
Wilkinson, D. J., Piasecki, M., & Atherton, P. J. (2018) · Ageing Research Reviews · doi:10.1016/j.arr.2018.07.005 · Cited by 874
Silva, C. D. F. R., Ohara, D. G., Matos, A. P., Pinto, A. C. P. N., & Pegorari, M. S. (2021) · International Journal of Environmental Research and Public Health · doi:10.3390/ijerph182010612 · Cited by 254
Physical Exercise in the Oldest Old
Valenzuela, P. L., Castillo‐García, A., Morales, J. S., Izquierdo, M., Serra‐Rexach, J. A., Santos‐Lozano, A., & Lucia, A. (2019) · Comprehensive Physiology · doi:10.1002/cphy.c190002 · Cited by 152
Dowling, P., Gargan, S., Swandulla, D., & Ohlendieck, K. (2023) · International Journal of Molecular Sciences · doi:10.3390/ijms24032415 · Cited by 103
Valenzuela, P. L., Maffiuletti, N. A., Joyner, M. J., Lucia, A., & Lepers, R. (2020) · Sports Medicine · doi:10.1007/s40279-019-01252-0 · Cited by 69
Metadata
- Authors
- Mckendry, J., Breen, L., Shad, B. J., & Greig, C. A.
- Affiliations
- University of Birmingham (GB)
- Arthritis Research UK (GB)
- Corresponding author
- Mckendry, James
- Venue
- Ageing Research Reviews
- Publisher
- Elsevier BV
- Published
- 2018-08
- Volume
- 45
- Pages
- 62-82
- ISSN
- 1568-1637 (ISSN-L)
- OpenAlex
- W2799276939
- Semantic Scholar
- 4e7995e28ef206fee2b2ba908de18ce3a867fb52
- Cited by
- 111
- References
- 131
- Citations by year
- 2026: 12 · 2025: 10 · 2024: 13 · 2023: 18 · 2022: 8 · 2021: 21 · 2020: 8 · 2019: 17 · 2018: 4
- FWCI
- 1.54
- Type
- journal article
- Language
- en
- Open access
- Licence
- cc-by-nc-nd
- www.elsevier.com/tdm/userlicense/1.0/ (tdm)
- www.elsevier.com/legal/tdmrep-license (tdm)
- doi.org/10.15223/policy-017 (stm-asf)
- doi.org/10.15223/policy-037 (stm-asf)
- doi.org/10.15223/policy-012 (stm-asf)
- doi.org/10.15223/policy-029 (stm-asf)
- doi.org/10.15223/policy-004 (stm-asf)
- Locations
- Ageing Research Reviews (publishedVersion)
- PubMed (publishedVersion)
- University of Birmingham Research Portal (University of Birmingham) (submittedVersion, cc-by-nc-nd)
- Funders
- School of Sport, Exercise and Rehabilitation Sciences, University of Birmingham
- Topics
- Health Sciences › Medicine › Physiology (medical) › Cardiovascular and exercise physiology
- Health Sciences › Medicine › Orthopedics and Sports Medicine › Sports Performance and Training
- Health Sciences › Medicine › Physiology (medical) › Nutrition and Health in Aging
- Keywords
- master athletes, exercise training, muscle morphology, muscle strength, muscle mass, physical function, endurance training, cardiorespiratory fitness, VO2max, body composition, body fat percentage, aging, older adults
- MeSH terms
- Physical Functional Performance, Aged, Aged, 80 and over, Aging, Exercise Test, Female, Humans, Male, Middle Aged, Physical Endurance, Exercise, Muscle Fibers, Skeletal, Muscle Strength, Athletes
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