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Development and validation of the Multimodal Presence Scale for virtual reality environments: A confirmatory factor analysis and item response theory approach
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“Furthermore, the CAMIL distinguishes between three different dimensions of presence including physical, social, and self-presence (Lee 2004;Makransky et al. 2017).”
From The Cognitive Affective Model of Immersive Learning (CAMIL): a Theoretical Research-Based Model of Learning in Immersive Virtual Reality (2021) · cites this paper as Makransky et al. 2017
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Avatar identification in online games: the moderating role of presence
Zhang, Z., & Li, C. (2026) · Entertainment Computing · doi:10.1016/j.entcom.2026.101089 · Cited by 1
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“Finally, the Multimodal Presence Scale (MPS) by Makransky et al. (2017) contains factors that partially overlap, but does not fully match with Slater’s PI and PsI.”
A survey on generative nonverbal facial behavior for highly realistic embodied agents
Nguyen, T. T. N., Dam, Q. T., Tran, D. T., & Joo-Ho, L. E. E. (2026) · Intelligent Service Robotics · doi:10.1007/s11370-025-00674-2 · Cited by 1
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“The German version of the MPS, the multimodal presence scale [41,42], was used for standardized (social) presence measurement.”
Chen, Q., Bellucci, A., & Jacucci, G. (2026) · CHI Conference on Human Factors in Computing Systems · doi:10.1145/3772318.3790581 · Cited by 1
“These usage patterns are summarized in Table 11, which is presented in Appendix B. Socialpresencewasmeasuredwiththe five-itemsubscale adapted from the Multimodal Presence Scale for VR environments [42].”
InfluentialLu, D., Peng, H., Wang, T., & Lai, I. (2026) · iScience · doi:10.1016/j.isci.2026.116091 · Cited by 1
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“Perceived presence within the virtual environment was measured with the Presence Scale from Makransky et al. [41].”
Human–human joint interaction in Cross-Reality systems: The impact of immersion and synchronicity
Macaluso, R., Cicco, N. D., Cannavò, A., Simeone, A. L., & Lamberti, F. (2026) · Computers & Graphics · doi:10.1016/j.cag.2026.104752 · Cited by 1
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“Adaptive computer tests are based on item response theory (IRT) (Clark & Watson, 2019; Magis & Barrada, 2017; Makransky et al., 2017).”
Lin, X., & Chen, Z. (2023) · International Conference on Educational Technology Management (ICETM) · doi:10.1145/3637907.3637966 · Cited by 1
“This has the advantage of allowing students to observe phenomena that cannot be observed in the real world and facilitating the transfer of conceptual knowledge to procedural knowledge by providing adaptive guidance in the virtual world[15] [16].”
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“It is often regarded as a stronger source of evidence compared to more exploratory approaches in scale validation.(5) By performing CFA, the researcher will be able to test the hypothesis that”
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“…the last trial had been presented, participants were led outside the CAVE and filled in further questionnaires including a second state anxiety inventory, as well as questionnaires related to presence (Multimodal Presence Scale [47], Igroup Presence Questionnaire [48] , and simulator sickness [49].”
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“For each category as defined by [17], the scores of the respective items were summed to generate the composite presence scores.”
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“Items were based on the multimodal presence scale (MPS), adapted for iVR research (Makransky et al., 2017).”
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“Virtual Reality (VR) can not only be used to provide an exploratory learning environment so that learners can learn through experiments [1], but also overcome the limitations of traditional experiments and provide high-quality solutions for experimental teaching with high cost and risk [2].”
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“The Multimodal Presence Scale (MPS) was developed by Makransky et al. ( 2017 ), based on Lee’s theory of pres - ence (Lee 2004 ).”
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“Presence was assessed using the 15-item Multimodal Presence Scale (MPS) [16], which measures physical, social, and self-presence [17].”
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“Sense of presence : Participants’ sense of presence in VR was evaluated using the same Multimodal Presence Scale (MPS) [43] from the original study, encompassing three dimensions: physical, social, and self-presence.”
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“Multidimensional scales have improved specificity [34], but suffer from conceptual inconsistency across studies [18].”
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“Presence and Sensory Awareness Questionnaire (PSAQ) (based on the Multimodal Presence Scale from Makransky et al. [45] with an additional factor on Sensory Awareness from Bangcuyo et al. [46]) (PT-EN); Table S7.”
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“These issues, which are well documented in the literature (Makransky et al., 2017, 2021), were generally associated with the use of head-mounted displays.”
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“The physical presence scale incorporated five items sourced from Makransky et al. [37].”
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“Scores were computed based on subscale averages, following the authors' recommendations. i) Multimodal Presence Scale [MPS; 14]: a 15-item scale assessing participants' sense of presence in the VR environment, categorized into three dimensions: “ Physical Presence ” (i.e., perceived realism of the…”
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“Presence was measured using a scale adapted from the Multimodal Presence Scale (Makransky et al., 2017), tailored to this study’s learning activities.”
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“Presence ( H7 ): To assess Presence , we employed the Multi-modal Presence Scale (MPS) [145].”
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“4) participants’ sense of presence within the VR environment was evaluated using the Multimodal Presence Scale (MPS) [23] to assess physical, social, and self-presence.”
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“VR can enhance embodied learning through heightened presence and positive reactions [27] [28] but may also increase extraneous cognitive load when conveying factual knowledge [15].”
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Oehler, M., Saurbier, B., Voong, T. M., & Bruns, L. (2026) · Lecture notes of the Institute for Computer Sciences, Social Informatics and Telecommunications Engineering · doi:10.1007/978-3-032-26999-7_1
Jiang, X., Ibrahim, Z., Li, Y., & Muying, L. (2026) · Frontiers in Psychology · doi:10.3389/fpsyg.2026.1813127
“2017); e.g., “The virtual environment seemed real to me”.”
Tong, C., Que, L., Guan, H., & Zhu, X. (2026) · Frontiers in Psychology · doi:10.3389/fpsyg.2026.1683244
“…delivered through 110 ° field-of-view headsets and spatial audio, significantly enhance learner attention and extend children’s focus time by up to 2.3-fold in virtual environments compared with traditional classrooms (Cummings and Bailenson, 2016; Makransky et al., 2017; Tarng et al., 2022).”
InfluentialCai, L., Zhang, T., Wang, Z., & Wang, C. (2026) · SSRN Electronic Journal · doi:10.2139/ssrn.6950576
Lutz, S., Pietschmann, D., & Stein, J. (2026) · New Media & Society · doi:10.1177/14614448261457439
Patel, M., Wiedbusch, M. D., Marano, C., Lester, J. C., & Azevedo, R. (2026) · Lecture notes in computer science · doi:10.1007/978-3-032-30015-7_23
Lin, J. T., Yang, J.-W., & Lee, Y.-H. (2026) · International Journal of Human-Computer Interaction · doi:10.1080/10447318.2026.2684290
“Social presence ( M ¼ 3.29, SD ¼ 1.49) was measured by adopting the five-item social presence subscale from the Multimodal Presence Scale (Makransky et al., 2017).”
InfluentialVirtual Reality Training for Assembly Operators in the Automotive Industry: A Pilot Usability Study
Vestel, C. D., & Zogopoulos, V. (2026) · Virtual Worlds · doi:10.3390/virtualworlds5030031
“The adapted Multimodal Presence Scale (MPS) [27] evaluates perceived presence.”
Metadata
- Authors
- Makransky, G., Lilleholt, L., & Aaby, A.
- Affiliations
- University of Southern Denmark (DK)
- Corresponding author
- Makransky, Guido
- Venue
- Computers in Human Behavior
- Publisher
- Elsevier BV
- Published
- 2017-07
- Volume
- 72
- Pages
- 276-285
- ISSN
- 0747-5632 (ISSN-L)
- OpenAlex
- W2594825291
- Cited by
- 424
- References
- 34
- Citations by year
- 2026: 76 · 2025: 78 · 2024: 78 · 2023: 54 · 2022: 47 · 2021: 38 · 2020: 19 · 2019: 22 · 2018: 10 · 2017: 2
- FWCI
- 17.91
- Type
- journal article
- Language
- en
- Open access
- closed
- Locations
- Computers in Human Behavior (publishedVersion)
- Research at the University of Copenhagen (University of Copenhagen) (publishedVersion)
- University of Southern Denmark Research Portal (University of Southern Denmark) (publishedVersion)
- Funders
- Innovation Fund Denmark
- Topics
- Physical Sciences › Computer Science › Human-Computer Interaction › Virtual Reality Applications and Impacts
- Social Sciences › Psychology › Developmental and Educational Psychology › Flow Experience in Various Fields
- Social Sciences › Education › Online and Blended Learning
- Keywords
- presence, virtual reality, physical presence, social presence, self-presence, scale development, psychometric validation, item response theory, virtual reality learning, medical students, biology students
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