Markers of anthropogenic contamination: A validated method for quantification of pharmaceuticals, illicit drug metabolites, perfluorinated compounds, and plasticisers in sewage treatment effluent and rain runoff
Abstract
An effective, specific and accurate method is presented for the quantification of 13 markers of anthropogenic contaminants in water using solid phase extraction (SPE) followed by high performance liquid chromatography (HPLC) tandem mass spectrometry (MS/MS). Validation was conducted according to the International Conference on Harmonisation (ICH) guidelines. Method recoveries ranged from 77 to 114% and limits of quantification between 0.75 and 4.91 ng/L. A study was undertaken to quantify the concentrations and loadings of the selected contaminants in 6 sewage treatment works (STW) effluent discharges as well as concentrations in 5 rain-driven street runoffs and field drainages. Detection frequencies in STW effluent ranged from 25% (ethinylestradiol) to 100% (benzoylecgonine, bisphenol-A (BPA), bisphenol-S (BPS) and diclofenac). Average concentrations of detected compounds in STW effluents ranged from 3.62 ng/L (ethinylestradiol) to 210 ng/L (BPA). Levels of perfluorinated compounds (PFCs) perfluorooctanoic acid (PFOA) and perfluorononanoic acid (PFNA) as well as the plasticiser BPA were found in street runoff at maximum levels of 1160 ng/L, 647 ng/L and 2405 ng/L respectively (8.52, 3.09 and 2.7 times more concentrated than maximum levels in STW effluents respectively). Rain-driven street runoff may have an effect on levels of PFCs and plasticisers in receiving rivers and should be further investigated. Together, this method with the 13 selected contaminants enables the quantification of various markers of anthropogenic pollutants: inter alia pharmaceuticals, illicit drugs and their metabolites from humans and improper disposal of drugs, while the plasticisers and perfluorinated compounds may also indicate contamination from industrial and transport activity (street runoff).
Integrity signals
Registry
Cites
Statistics
Claims the paper makes
Claims other papers make about this one
Each is checked against this paper’s own text: does it say what the citing paper says it does?
Road dust studies in Australia showed higher PFAS levels in high-traffic zones than in industrial areas.
“Road dust studies in Australia showed higher PFAS levels in high-traffic zones than in industrial areas”
From Per- and Polyfluoroalkyl Substances (PFAS) in Urban Stormwater Runoff: Insights from a Roadside Rain Garden (2025) · cites this paper as [51]
Street runoff PFAS concentrations have been found to exceed those in wastewater treatment effluent by severalfold.
“street runoff PFAS concentrations have been found to exceed those in wastewater treatment effluent by severalfold [48-51].”
From Per- and Polyfluoroalkyl Substances (PFAS) in Urban Stormwater Runoff: Insights from a Roadside Rain Garden (2025) · cites this paper as [51]
These observations indicated generally higher concentrations than previously observed in urban stormwater for PFHxA, and similar concentrations for PFOA and PFOS.
“Overall, these observations indicated generally higher concentrations than previously observed in urban stormwater for PFHxA, and similar concentrations for PFOA and PFOS.[87][88][89][90][91][92]”
From Storms mobilize organophosphate esters, bisphenols, PFASs, and vehicle-derived contaminants to San Francisco Bay watersheds (2024) · cites this paper as [91]
Cites
Kolpin, D. W., Furlong, E. T., Meyer, M. T., Thurman, E. M., Zaugg, S. D., Barber, L. B., & Buxton, H. T. (2002) · Environmental Science & Technology · doi:10.1021/es011055j · Cited by 7,953 · see citing works
Petrie, B., Barden, R., & Kasprzyk-Hordern, B. (2015) · Water Research · doi:10.1016/j.watres.2014.08.053 · Cited by 2,614 · see citing works
Verlicchi, P., Al Aukidy, M., & Zambello, E. (2012) · Science of The Total Environment · doi:10.1016/j.scitotenv.2012.04.028 · Cited by 2,183 · see citing works
Huang, Y., Wong, C. K. C., Zheng, J., Bouwman, H., Barra, R. O., Wahlström, B. A., Neretin, L. N., & Wong, M. H. (2011) · Environment International · doi:10.1016/j.envint.2011.04.010 · Cited by 1,148 · see citing works
Excretion and ecotoxicity of pharmaceutical and personal care products in the environment
Jjemba, P. K. (2005) · Ecotoxicology and Environmental Safety · doi:10.1016/j.ecoenv.2004.11.011 · Cited by 526 · see citing works
Reproductive Disruption in Fish Downstream from an Estrogenic Wastewater Effluent
Vajda, A. M., Barber, L. B., Gray, J. L., Lopez, E. M., Woodling, J. D., & Norris, D. O. (2008) · Environmental Science & Technology · doi:10.1021/es0720661 · Cited by 467 · see citing works
da Silva, B. F., Jelić, A., López-Serna, R., Mozeto, A. A., Petrović, M., & Barceló, . (2011) · Chemosphere · doi:10.1016/j.chemosphere.2011.07.051 · Cited by 429 · see citing works
Organophosphate flame retardants and plasticisers in wastewater treatment plants
Meyer, J., & Bester, K. (2004) · Journal of Environmental Monitoring · doi:10.1039/b403206c · Cited by 292 · see citing works
Peck, A. M. (2006) · Analytical and Bioanalytical Chemistry · doi:10.1007/s00216-006-0728-3 · Cited by 250 · see citing works
Long-term effects of environmental endocrine disruptors on reproductive physiology and behavior
Patisaul, H. B. (2009) · Frontiers in Behavioral Neuroscience · doi:10.3389/neuro.08.010.2009 · Cited by 245 · see citing works
Wilkinson, J. L., Hooda, P. S., Barker, J., Barton, S., & Swinden, J. (2015) · Critical Reviews in Environmental Science and Technology · doi:10.1080/10643389.2015.1096876 · Cited by 228 · see citing works
Self-citationProduction of PFOS from aerobic soil biotransformation of two perfluoroalkyl sulfonamide derivatives
Mejia Avendaño, S., & Liu, J. (2015) · Chemosphere · doi:10.1016/j.chemosphere.2014.09.059 · Cited by 225 · see citing works
Evaluation of wastewater and street runoff as sources of perfluorinated surfactants (PFSs)
Murakami, M., Shinohara, H., & Takada, H. (2009) · Chemosphere · doi:10.1016/j.chemosphere.2008.10.018 · Cited by 218 · see citing works
Wei, Z., Zhang, Y., Taniyasu, S., Yeung, L. W. Y., Lam, P. K. S., Wang, J., Li, X., Yamashita, N., & Dai, J. (2013) · Environmental Pollution · doi:10.1016/j.envpol.2012.12.019 · Cited by 191 · see citing works
Demasculinization of male fish by wastewater treatment plant effluent
Vajda, A. M., Barber, L. B., Gray, J. L., Lopez, E. M., Bolden, A. M., Schoenfuss, H. L., & Norris, D. O. (2011) · Aquatic Toxicology · doi:10.1016/j.aquatox.2011.02.007 · Cited by 177 · see citing works
Analysis of perfluoroalkyl substances in waters from Germany and Spain
Llorca, M., Farré, M., Picó, Y., Müller, J., Knepper, T. P., & Barceló, D. (2012) · Science of The Total Environment · doi:10.1016/j.scitotenv.2012.05.011 · Cited by 170 · see citing works
Intersex and other reproductive disruption of fish in wastewater effluent dominated Colorado streams
Woodling, J. D., Lopez, E. M., Maldonado, T. A., Norris, D. O., & Vajda, A. M. (2006) · Comparative Biochemistry and Physiology Part C Toxicology & Pharmacology · doi:10.1016/j.cbpc.2006.04.019 · Cited by 148 · see citing works
Fairbairn, D. J., Arnold, W. A., Barber, B. L., Kaufenberg, E. F., Koskinen, W. C., Novak, P. J., Rice, P. J., & Swackhamer, D. L. (2016) · Environmental Science & Technology · doi:10.1021/acs.est.5b03109 · Cited by 124 · see citing works
Zushi, Y., Takeda, T., & Masunaga, S. (2008) · Chemosphere · doi:10.1016/j.chemosphere.2007.11.055 · Cited by 123 · see citing works
Roosens, L., Covaci, A., & Neels, H. M. (2007) · Chemosphere · doi:10.1016/j.chemosphere.2007.05.072 · Cited by 104 · see citing works
Fish Endocrine Disruption Responses to a Major Wastewater Treatment Facility Upgrade
Barber, L. B., Vajda, A. M., Douville, C., Norris, D. O., & Writer, J. H. (2012) · Environmental Science & Technology · doi:10.1021/es202880e · Cited by 103 · see citing works
Liu, B., Zhang, H., Yao, D., Li, J., Xie, L., Wang, X., Wang, Y., Liu, G., & Yang, B. (2015) · Chemosphere · doi:10.1016/j.chemosphere.2015.07.012 · Cited by 99 · see citing works
Emerging Contaminants in the Environment
Davis, J. (2022) · Elsevier eBooks · doi:10.1016/c2020-0-02013-x · Cited by 69 · see citing works
Furl, C. V., Meredith, C. A., Strynar, M. J., & Nakayama, S. F. (2011) · The Science of The Total Environment · doi:10.1016/j.scitotenv.2011.04.035 · Cited by 46 · see citing works
King, O. C., van de Merwe, J. P., McDonald, J. A., & Leusch, F. D. L. (2015) · Environmental Toxicology and Chemistry · doi:10.1002/etc.3304 · Cited by 45 · see citing works
Flagged first, then by citations
Cited by
Sorted by citations
Wilkinson, J. L., Hooda, P., Barker, J., Barton, S. J., & Swinden, J. (2017) · Environmental Pollution · doi:10.1016/j.envpol.2017.08.032 · Cited by 600 · see citing works
Self-citationSathishkumar, P., Meena, R. A. A., Thavamani, P., Ashokkumar, V., Palvannan, T., & Gu, F. L. (2019) · The Science of The Total Environment · doi:10.1016/j.scitotenv.2019.134057 · Cited by 448 · see citing works
Trends in the recovery of phosphorus in bioavailable forms from wastewater
Melia, P. M., Cundy, A. B., Sohi, S., Hooda, P. S., & Busquets, R. (2017) · Chemosphere · doi:10.1016/j.chemosphere.2017.07.089 · Cited by 220 · see citing works
Self-citationHuang, Z., Zhao, J.-L., Yang, Y.-Y., Jia, Y.-W., Zhang, Q.-Q., Chen, C.-E., Liu, Y.-S., Yang, B., Xie, L., & Ying, G.-G. (2020) · Environmental Pollution · doi:10.1016/j.envpol.2020.114361 · Cited by 154 · see citing works
Spahr, S., Teixidó, M., Sedlak, D. L., & Luthy, R. G. (2020) · Environmental Science: Water Research & Technology · doi:10.1039/c9ew00674e · Cited by 153 · see citing works
Xiao, Y., Han, D., Currell, M., Song, X., & Zhang, Y. (2023) · Water Research · doi:10.1016/j.watres.2023.120645 · Cited by 145 · see citing works
Wilkinson, J. L., Hooda, P. S., Swinden, J., Barker, J., & Barton, S. (2017) · Environmental Pollution · doi:10.1016/j.envpol.2017.11.090 · Cited by 142 · see citing works
Self-citationWilkinson, J. L., Hooda, P. S., Swinden, J., Barker, J., & Barton, S. (2017) · The Science of The Total Environment · doi:10.1016/j.scitotenv.2017.03.167 · Cited by 89 · see citing works
Self-citationBioaccumulation behaviour of pharmaceuticals and personal care products in a constructed wetland
Wang, Y., Yin, T., Kelly, B. C., & Gin, K. Y. (2019) · Chemosphere · doi:10.1016/j.chemosphere.2019.01.116 · Cited by 86 · see citing works
Zhao, J., Zheng, H., Zhang, Q.-Q., Ying-He, L., Wang, T., Yang, Y., & Ying, G. (2020) · Journal of Hazardous Materials · doi:10.1016/j.jhazmat.2020.123747 · Cited by 81 · see citing works
Analysis of emerging and related pollutants in aquatic biota
Álvarez-Ruiz, R., & Picó, Y. (2020) · Trends in Environmental Analytical Chemistry · doi:10.1016/j.teac.2020.e00082 · Cited by 80 · see citing works
Hanif, H., Waseem, A., Kali, S., Qureshi, N. A., Majid, M., Iqbal, M., Ur-Rehman, T., Tahir, M. B., Yousaf, S., Iqbal, M. M., et al. (2020) · Environmental Monitoring and Assessment · doi:10.1007/s10661-020-8151-3 · Cited by 69 · see citing works
Aparicio, I., Martı́n, J., Abril, C., Santos, J. L., & Alonso, E. (2017) · Journal of Chromatography A · doi:10.1016/j.chroma.2017.12.011 · Cited by 66 · see citing works
Wang, H., Tang, Z., Liu, Z., Zeng, F., Zhang, J., & Dang, Z. (2022) · Environmental Science and Pollution Research · doi:10.1007/s11356-021-17647-4 · Cited by 66 · see citing works
Fuchte, H. E., Beck, N., Bieg, E., Bayer, V. J., Achten, C., Krauss, M. K. V., Schäffer, A., & Smith, K. E. C. (2022) · Environmental Pollution · doi:10.1016/j.envpol.2022.119047 · Cited by 41 · see citing works
Toxicity and biotransformation of bisphenol S in freshwater green alga Chlorella vulgaris
Ding, T., Li, W., Yang, M., Yang, B., & Li, J. (2020) · The Science of The Total Environment · doi:10.1016/j.scitotenv.2020.141144 · Cited by 38 · see citing works
Celis-Hernández, O., Cundy, A., Croudace, I., Ward, R., Busquets, R., & Wilkinson, J. L. (2020) · Water Research · doi:10.1016/j.watres.2020.116610 · Cited by 31 · see citing works
Self-citationPeter, K. T., Gilbreath, A., Gonzalez, M., Tian, Z., Wong, A., Yee, D., Miller, E. L., Avellaneda, P. M., Chen, D., Patterson, A., et al. (2024) · Environmental Science: Processes & Impacts · doi:10.1039/d4em00117f · Cited by 31 · see citing works
Gopal, C. M., Bhat, K., Praveenkumarreddy, Y., Shailesh, Kumar, V., Basu, H., Joshua, D. I., Singhal, R. K., & Balakrishna, K. (2020) · Journal of Pharmaceutical and Biomedical Analysis · doi:10.1016/j.jpba.2020.113214 · Cited by 30 · see citing works
Urban stormwater capture for water supply: look out for persistent, mobile and toxic substances
Mutzner, L., Zhang, K., Luthy, R. G., Arp, H. P. H., & Spahr, S. (2023) · Environmental Science: Water Research & Technology · doi:10.1039/d3ew00160a · Cited by 27 · see citing works
Temporal Trends of Per- and Polyfluoroalkyl Substances in Delaware River Fish, USA
MacGillivray, A. R. (2020) · Integrated Environmental Assessment and Management · doi:10.1002/ieam.4342 · Cited by 25 · see citing works
Qin, Y., Liu, J., Han, L., Ren, J., Jing, C., Lu, G., & Yang, X. (2023) · Emerging contaminants · doi:10.1016/j.emcon.2023.100292 · Cited by 24 · see citing works
Busquets, R., Ivanov, A. E., Mbundi, L., Hörberg, S., Kozynchenko, O. P., Cragg, P. J., Savina, I. N., Whitby, R. L. D., Mikhalovsky, S. V., Tennison, S. R., et al. (2016) · Journal of Environmental Management · doi:10.1016/j.jenvman.2016.07.061 · Cited by 24 · see citing works
Martins, A. F., dos Santos, J. B., Todeschini, B. H., Saldanha, L. F., da Silva, D. S., Reichert, J. F., & Souza, D. M. (2016) · Chemosphere · doi:10.1016/j.chemosphere.2016.12.019 · Cited by 22 · see citing works
Blonç, M., Lima, J., Balasch, J. C., Tort, L., Gravato, C., & Teles, M. (2023) · Animals · doi:10.3390/ani13050792 · Cited by 21 · see citing works
Quality of Water in the Road Drainage Systems in the Warsaw Agglomeration, Poland
Fronczyk, J., Radziemska, M., Dynowski, P., Mazur, Z., & Bazydło, M. (2016) · Water · doi:10.3390/w8100429 · Cited by 14 · see citing works
Potential of plant species for phytoremediation of metformin from solutions
Moogouei, R., Borghei, M., Hosseini, S. A., & Tajadod, G. (2017) · International Journal of Environmental Science and Technology · doi:10.1007/s13762-017-1538-1 · Cited by 14 · see citing works
Comparative study on the toxicity and removal of bisphenol S in two typical freshwater algae
Li, J., Li, W., Huang, X., & Ding, T. (2021) · Environmental Science and Pollution Research · doi:10.1007/s11356-021-13224-x · Cited by 13 · see citing works
Villarreal-Morales, R., Hinojosa‐Reyes, L., Hernández‐Ramírez, A., Ruíz-Ruíz, E., Maya-Treviño, M. D. L., & Guzmán‐Mar, J. L. (2020) · International Journal of Environmental & Analytical Chemistry · doi:10.1080/03067319.2020.1742891 · Cited by 13 · see citing works
Sims, D. B., Monk, J., Garner, M. C., Hudson, A. C., Keller, J. E., Aguaiza, C., Lindley, K., Woldetsadik, D. A., & Buch, A. C. (2024) · International Journal of Environmental Science and Technology · doi:10.1007/s13762-024-05522-x · Cited by 11 · see citing works
Yang, S., Xu, Z., Wang, N., Liu, Z., Luo, D., Wu, Y., & Sun, X. L. (2026) · Marine Pollution Bulletin · doi:10.1016/j.marpolbul.2026.119547 · Cited by 5 · see citing works
Pérez-Alvárez, I., Islas‐Flores, H., Sánchez-Aceves, L. M., Gómez‐Oliván, L. M., & Chamorro, G. (2023) · Water Emerging Contaminants & Nanoplastics · doi:10.20517/wecn.2022.23 · Cited by 5 · see citing works
Brown, C. A., Swenson, J. T., Cho, Y., Pritchard, J. C., Milstead, R. P., Remucal, C. K., & Luthy, R. G. (2025) · Environmental Science & Technology · doi:10.1021/acs.est.5c08255 · Cited by 4 · see citing works
Nunes, C. N., Komatsu, E., Perreault, H., & Quináia, S. P. (2020) · Revista Virtual de Química · doi:10.21577/1984-6835.20200019 · Cited by 3 · see citing works
Saleh, H., Sarkar, D., Zhang, Z., Boufadel, M., & Datta, R. (2025) · Water · doi:10.3390/w17202982 · Cited by 3 · see citing works
Sun, X. L., Luo, D., Xu, Z., Sun, W., Wang, N., Liu, Y., Liu, Z., Tang, X., Wu, J., & Wu, Y. (2025) · Marine Pollution Bulletin · doi:10.1016/j.marpolbul.2025.118683 · Cited by 2 · see citing works
Simultaneous targeted and non-targeted analysis of contaminants in fertilizers in Quebec, Canada
Zheng, J., Desrosiers, M., Benjannet, R., & Bayen, S. (2024) · The Science of The Total Environment · doi:10.1016/j.scitotenv.2024.177970 · Cited by 2 · see citing works
Acuña, A. M., Silva-Acuña, R., Martínez, M. Á., Natera, J. R. M., & Maestre, R. B. (2017) · Ciencia Unemi · doi:10.29076/issn.2528-7737vol10iss24.2017pp99-108p · Cited by 1 · see citing works
Study of outdoor rainwater drainage pollution in a hospital
Fang, M., Chen, C., Ding, X., & Qian, Z. (2023) · Water Practice & Technology · doi:10.2166/wpt.2023.185
Estudo da remoção de diclofenaco de sódio em meio aquoso usando carvão ativado
do Nascimento, K. K. R., Vieira, F. F., Xavier, C. S. F., Bandeira, A. D. A. E. S., Silva, A. L. O., de Almeida, M. M., & Neta, O. P. L. (2023) · Revista Ibero-Americana de Ciências Ambientais · doi:10.6008/cbpc2179-6858.2022.010.0013
- Authors
- Wilkinson, J. L., Swinden, J., Hooda, P. S., Barker, J., & Barton, S.
- Affiliations
- Kingston University London (GB)
- Corresponding author
- Wilkinson, John L.
- Venue
- Chemosphere
- Publisher
- Elsevier BV
- Published
- 2016-09
- Volume
- 159
- Pages
- 638-646
- ISSN
- 0045-6535 (ISSN-L)
- OpenAlex
- W2467368080
- Cited by
- 41
- References
- 25
- Citations by year
- 2026: 1 · 2025: 3 · 2024: 3 · 2023: 7 · 2022: 2 · 2021: 1 · 2020: 10 · 2019: 3 · 2017: 7 · 2016: 4
- FWCI
- 2.54
- Type
- journal article
- Language
- en
- Open access
- closed
- Locations
- Chemosphere (publishedVersion)
- PubMed (publishedVersion)
- Research Repository (Kingston University London) (acceptedVersion)
- Funders
- Kingston University
- Topics
- Physical Sciences › Environmental Science › Pollution › Pharmaceutical and Antibiotic Environmental Impacts
- Physical Sciences › Environmental Science › Health, Toxicology and Mutagenesis › Effects and risks of endocrine disrupting chemicals
- Physical Sciences › Chemistry › Analytical Chemistry › Analytical chemistry methods development
- Keywords
- anthropogenic pollutants, pharmaceuticals, perfluorinated compounds, plasticizers, sewage treatment effluent, bisphenol A, bisphenol S, perfluorooctanoic acid, perfluorononanoic acid, ethinyl estradiol, benzoylecgonine, diclofenac, solid-phase extraction, HPLC-MS/MS method validation, pollutant load
- MeSH terms
- Bisphenol A Compounds, Bisphenol S Compounds, Benzhydryl Compounds, Caprylates, Pharmaceutical Preparations, Environmental Monitoring, Fluorocarbons, Phenols, Plasticizers, Rain, Sewage, Illicit Drugs, Sulfones, Water Pollutants, Chemical, Substance Abuse Detection, Rivers, Solid Phase Extraction, Tandem Mass Spectrometry, Wastewater
About these checks
Registry, retraction, Cites and statistics results are computed, not judged, with one exception: a printed reference that no index lists is read once by a model before it counts as a citation error. Claims are extracted by a model and kept only when their quote appears verbatim in the text; each cited source is then checked, with a model’s help, for whether it says what the claim relies on. Those verdicts can be wrong — read the claim’s quote and the cited source before relying on one.
Statistics and arithmetic are recomputed, not judged.
Confidence bands are shown only for fields calibrated on our annotated test set. None is calibrated yet, so no band is shown.
What counts as a claim ›How we measure confidence ›How we check this ›
Are you an author, or do you see a problem with this page? Request a review