Cited by 739SARS-CoV-2 and COVID-19 Researchvaccines and immunoinformatics approachesAnimal Virus Infections Studies

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Identification of SARS-CoV-2 spike mutations that attenuate monoclonal and serum antibody neutralization

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Liu, Zhuoming, VanBlargan, Laura A., Bloyet, Louis-Marie, Rothlauf, Paul W., Chen, Rita E., Stumpf, Spencer, Zhao, Haiyan, Errico, John M., Theel, Elitza S., Liebeskind, Mariel J., Alford, Brynn, Buchser, William J., Ellebedy, Ali H., Fremont, Daved H., Diamond, Michael S., Whelan, Sean P.J.·2021·Cell Host & Microbe

DOI 10.1016/j.chom.2021.01.014PMC PMC7839837

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Abstract

Neutralizing antibodies against the SARS-CoV-2 spike (S) protein are a goal of COVID-19 vaccines and have received emergency use authorization as therapeutics. However, viral escape mutants could compromise efficacy. To define immune-selected mutations in the S protein, we exposed a VSV-eGFP-SARS-CoV-2-S chimeric virus, in which the VSV glycoprotein is replaced with the S protein, to 19 neutralizing monoclonal antibodies (mAbs) against the receptor-binding domain (RBD) and generated 50 different escape mutants. Each mAb had a unique resistance profile, although many shared residues within an epitope of the RBD. Some variants (e.g., S477N) were resistant to neutralization by multiple mAbs, whereas others (e.g., E484K) escaped neutralization by convalescent sera. Additionally, sequential selection identified mutants that escape neutralization by antibody cocktails. Comparing these antibody-mediated mutations with sequence variation in circulating SARS-CoV-2 revealed substitutions that may attenuate neutralizing immune responses in some humans and thus warrant further investigation.

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“Processing of S by host cell proteases, typically TMPRSS2, TMPRSS4, or endosomal cathepsins, facilitates the S2-dependent fusion of viral and host-cell membranes (Hoffmann et al., 2020; Zang et al., 2020).”
Background
A new coronavirus associated with human respiratory disease in China
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Background
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BackgroundResult
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“The rapid dissemination of these variants, combined with the ability of viruses harboring the mutation E484K to potentially escape from neutralizing antibodies mounted for older lineages (13,16), should raise concern about the potential effect on infectivity, pathogenicity, and reinfection.”
Background
Neutralization of SARS-CoV-2 Variants of Concern Harboring Q677H
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“2 variant, which carries the E484K mutation [2], was detected in this study.”
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“However, numerous reported neutralizing mAbs targeting the RBD to block the interaction with ACE2 fail to neutralize many of the clinical variants because multiple mutations occur in the highly variable RBD, allowing the virus to escape neutralization (14–16).”
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“…resistance to class 1, 2 and 3 antibodies in cell culture has repeatedly identified K417, E484 and N501 substitutions, with E484K giving the most pervasive effects against polyclonal plasma (Baum et al., 2020; Greaney et al., 2021; Liu et al., 2021; Wang et al., 2021; Weisblum et al., 2020).”
Background
Allosteric perspective on the mutability and druggability of the SARS-CoV-2 Spike protein
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“, 2020) at the binding interface with the ACE2 receptor was found to confer resistance to neutralization by multiple monoclonal antibodies (mAbs) (Liu et al., 2021) and to improve binding affinity to ACE2 (Starr et al.”
Background
Passive Immunotherapy Against SARS-CoV-2: From Plasma-Based Therapy to Single Potent Antibodies in the Race to Stay Ahead of the Variants
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“While several highly effective neutralizing antibodies have been identified and are currently tested in humans, antibody administration could result in the rapid occurrence of resistant mutations in viral spike.(31,32) As a matter of fact, a series of such antibody-resistant mutations have already been identified, whi…”
Background
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“The most common of these substitutions is M/T2634V in nonstructural protein 5, NS5, the RNA-dependent RNA polymerase (RdRp).”
Influential
Antigenic evolution of SARS coronavirus 2
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“…point mutant pseudoviruses, chimeric viruses, or recombinant infectious clone-derived SARS-CoV-2 have demonstrated that this mutation displays resistance to neutralization by infection- and vaccine-induced antibodies (Johnson et al., 2021; Liu et al., 2021; Shen et al., 2021; Xie et al., 2021).”
Background
Simulation-driven design of stabilized SARS-CoV-2 spike S2 immunogens
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“…does not signi ﬁ cantly change for HexaPro-SS-V991W [ k opening =(1.1±0.5) × 10 5 s − 1 ], it becomes smaller for HexaPro-SS-2W [ k opening =(7.0±2.3) × 10 3 s − 1 ]andHexaPro-SS-T998W[ k opening = (3.4± 0.1)×10 3 s − 1 ],indicating that T998W induces a roughly 10-fold slower trimer opening.”
BackgroundMethodInfluential
An ultrapotent pan-β-coronavirus lineage B (β-CoV-B) neutralizing antibody locks the receptor-binding domain in closed conformation by targeting its conserved epitope
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“…angiotensin-converting enzyme-2 (ACE2) and confer resistance to vaccine sera and many monoclonal antibodies (Hou et al., 2020; Korber et al., 2020; Starr et al., 2020; Yurkovetskiy et al., 2020; Greaney et al., 2021; Gupta, 2021; Liu et al., 2021; Plante et al., 2021; Wang et al., 2021c, d).”
Self-citation
A class II MHC-targeted vaccine elicits immunity against SARS-CoV-2 and its variants
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“Neutralization assays were performed similarly to what has been described (19, 20).”
MethodSelf-citation
Key Substitutions in the Spike Protein of SARS-CoV-2 Variants Can Predict Resistance to Monoclonal Antibodies, but Other Substitutions Can Modify the Effects
Lusvarghi, S., Wang, W., Herrup, R., Neerukonda, S. N., Vassell, R. A., Bentley, L., Eakin, A. E., Erlandson, K. J., & Weiss, C. D. (2021) · Journal of Virology · doi:10.1128/jvi.01110-21 · Cited by 33
“Consistent with many reports (38, 52-60), the E484K substitution present in many lineages had a major impact on many nAbs, leading to a loss of potency for five nAbs (nAbs.”
Result
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Zhang, J. Z., Yeh, A. H.-W., Walls, A. C., Wicky, B. I. M., Sprouse, K. R., VanBlargan, L. A., Treger, R. S., Quijano‐Rubio, A., Pham, M. N., Kraft, J. C., et al. (2022) · Nature Biotechnology · doi:10.1038/s41587-022-01280-8 · Cited by 37
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Emergence of SARS-CoV-2 Spike Mutations during Prolonged Infection in Immunocompromised Hosts
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“were shown to be associated with broad resistance to monoclonal antibody panels (31).”
Background
Reduced antibody activity against SARS-CoV-2 B.1.617.2 delta virus in serum of mRNA-vaccinated individuals receiving tumor necrosis factor-α inhibitors
Chen, R. E., Gorman, M. J., Zhu, D. Y., Carreño, J. M., Yuan, D., VanBlargan, L. A., Burdess, S., Lauffenburger, D. A., Kim, W., Turner, J. S., et al. (2021) · Med · doi:10.1016/j.medj.2021.11.004 · Cited by 37
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Whole genome sequencing of SARS-CoV2 strains circulating in Iran during five waves of pandemic
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First identification of SARS-CoV-2 lambda (C.37) variant in Southern Brazil
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Boosting with Omicron-matched or historical mRNA vaccines increases neutralizing antibody responses and protection against B.1.1.529 infection in micePreprint
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Cold atmospheric plasma for preventing infection of viruses that use ACE2 for entry
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“In fact, mutated viruses could partly (E484K, Alpha, Beta, Gamma, Epsilon, Eta, Iota, Zeta and Theta) and (E484Q, Kappa) or completely (S477N, Iota) escape from NAb-mediated neutralization[8,16], and positive COVID-19 cases have been reported among vaccinated individuals[17].”
Background
Correlates of Neutralization against SARS-CoV-2 Variants of Concern by Early Pandemic Sera
Vidal, S. J., Collier, A.-R. Y., Yu, J., McMahan, K., Tostanoski, L. H., Ventura, J. D., Aïd, M., Peter, L. E., Jacob-Dolan, C., Anioke, T., et al. (2021) · Journal of Virology · doi:10.1128/jvi.00404-21 · Cited by 34
Innate Immune Response in SARS-CoV-2 Infection
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“As APCs, also SARS-CoV-2 effect on Human Leukocyte Antigen [89] expression on monocyte and macrophage is crucial in the control of the infection.”
BackgroundInfluential
Curcumin inhibits spike protein of new SARS-CoV-2 variant of concern (VOC) Omicron, an in silico study
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Evolution of a globally unique SARS-CoV-2 Spike E484T monoclonal antibody escape mutation in a persistently infected, immunocompromised individual
Halfmann, P., Minor, N. R., Haddock, L. A., Maddox, R., Moreno, G. K., Braun, K. M., Baker, D. A., Riemersa, K. K., Prasad, A., Alman, K. J., et al. (2022) · Virus Evolution · doi:10.1093/ve/veac104 · Cited by 36
Omicron: a drug developer’s perspective
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Single domain shark VNAR antibodies neutralize SARS‐CoV‐2 infection in vitro
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Booster vaccination strategy: Necessity, immunization objectives, immunization strategy, and safety
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“In addition, along with the circulating variants to some degree escaping from the immune response, the existing neutralizing activity might be insufficient for effective immune protection.(8,9) According to the World Health Organization (WHO), only when the protective efficacy of the COVID‐19 vaccine reaches at least…”
Background
Mutational dynamics of SARS-CoV-2: Impact on future COVID-19 vaccine strategies
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Tracking SARS-CoV-2 Mutations & Variants Through the COG-UK-Mutation Explorer
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Differential neutralizing antibody responses elicited by CoronaVac and BNT162b2 against SARS-CoV-2 Lambda in Chile
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The Delta SARS-CoV-2 Variant of Concern Induces Distinct Pathogenic Patterns of Respiratory Disease in K18-hACE2 Transgenic Mice Compared to the Ancestral Strain from Wuhan
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Implementation of an in-house real-time reverse transcription-PCR assay for the rapid detection of the SARS-CoV-2 Marseille-4 variant
Bedotto, M., Fournier, P., Houhamdi, L., Levasseur, A., Delerce, J., Pinault, L., Padane, A., Chamieh, A., Tissot‐Dupont, H., Brouqui, P., et al. (2021) · Journal of Clinical Virology · doi:10.1016/j.jcv.2021.104814 · Cited by 27
Trajectory of Growth of Severe Acute Respiratory Syndrome Coronavirus 2 (SARS-CoV-2) Variants in Houston, Texas, January through May 2021, Based on 12,476 Genome Sequences
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RBD-homodimer, a COVID-19 subunit vaccine candidate, elicits immunogenicity and protection in rodents and nonhuman primates
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Rapid detection of multiple SARS-CoV-2 variants of concern by PAM-targeting mutations
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Molecular Epidemiology of SARS-CoV-2 in Tunisia (North Africa) through Several Successive Waves of COVID-19
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The Emergence and Spread of Novel SARS-CoV-2 Variants
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Recent progress on the mutations of SARS-CoV-2 spike protein and suggestions for prevention and controlling of the pandemic
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Mouse Models for the Study of SARS-CoV-2 Infection
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Evidence for an ACE2-Independent Entry Pathway That Can Protect from Neutralization by an Antibody Used for COVID-19 Therapy
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“1), harbor mutation E484K, which has been associated with neutralization resistance (2, 3).”
BackgroundResult
Collaboration between the Fab and Fc contribute to maximal protection against SARS-CoV-2 in nonhuman primates following NVX-CoV2373 subunit vaccine with Matrix-M™ vaccinationPreprint
Gorman, M. J., Patel, N., Guebre‐Xabier, M., Zhu, A. L., Atyeo, C. G., Pullen, K. M., Loos, C., Goez-Gazi, Y., Carrion, R., Tian, J.-H., et al. (2021) · bioRxiv (Cold Spring Harbor Laboratory) · doi:10.1101/2021.02.05.429759 · Cited by 29
Structural understanding of SARS-CoV-2 virus entry to host cells
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Potential immune evasion of the severe acute respiratory syndrome coronavirus 2 Omicron variants
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Perspective: diagnostic laboratories should urgently develop T cell assays for SARS-CoV-2 infection
Ameratunga, R., Woon, S., Jordan, A., Longhurst, H. J., Leung, E. Y., Steele, R. H., Lehnert, K., Snell, R. G., & Brooks, A. E. S. (2021) · Expert Review of Clinical Immunology · doi:10.1080/1744666x.2021.1905525 · Cited by 28
“and indevimab may be rendered ineffective against new variants including those bearing the E484K mutation [57,58].”
Background
Computational prediction of the effect of mutations in the receptor-binding domain on the interaction between SARS-CoV-2 and human ACE2
Çeli̇k, İ., Khan, A., Dwivany, F. M., Fatimawali, F., Wei, D., & Tallei, T. E. (2022) · Molecular Diversity · doi:10.1007/s11030-022-10392-x · Cited by 30
“The F490S mutation was suspected to be associated with decreased antibody neutralization susceptibility [14].”
Background
CD8+ T-cell immune escape by SARS-CoV-2 variants of concern
Kombe, A. J. K., Biteghe, F. A. N., Ndoutoume, Z. N., & Jin, T. (2022) · Frontiers in Immunology · doi:10.3389/fimmu.2022.962079 · Cited by 29
“(14) reported that mutations in the receptor binding domain (RBD) and N-terminal domain (NTD) play a crucial role in variant resistance to humoral immunity.”
BackgroundInfluential
Neutralizing activity of Sputnik V vaccine sera against SARS-CoV-2 variantsPreprint
Ikegame, S., Siddiquey, M. N. A., Hung, C.-T., Haas, G. D., Brambilla, L., Oguntuyo, K. Y., Kowdle, S., Vilardo, A. E., Edelstein, A., Perandones, C., et al. (2021) · medRxiv · doi:10.1101/2021.03.31.21254660 · Cited by 30
Monitoring the SARS-CoV-2 pandemic: screening algorithm with single nucleotide polymorphism detection for the rapid identification of established and emerging variants
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Role of spike in the pathogenic and antigenic behavior of SARS-CoV-2 BA.1 OmicronPreprint
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Human immunoglobulin from transchromosomic bovines hyperimmunized with SARS-CoV-2 spike antigen efficiently neutralizes viral variants
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Self-citation
High diversity in Delta variant across countries revealed by genome‐wide analysis of SARS‐CoV‐2 beyond the Spike protein
Suratekar, R., Ghosh, P., Niesen, M. J. M., Donadio, G., Anand, P., Soundararajan, V., & Venkatakrishnan, A. (2022) · Molecular Systems Biology · doi:10.15252/msb.202110673 · Cited by 28
“Is Omicron mild”? Testing this narrative with the mutational landscape of its three lineages and response to existing vaccines and therapeutic antibodies
Rajpal, V. R., Sharma, S., Kumar, A., Chand, S., Joshi, L., Chandra, A., Babbar, S., Goel, S., Raina, S. N., & Shiran, B. (2022) · Journal of Medical Virology · doi:10.1002/jmv.27749 · Cited by 26
“Mutations K417N, T478K, N501Y, D614G, and others have been found to be associated with reinfection, partial resistance to vaccines and increased transmissibility.(5,24) S1/S2 cleavage site mutations H655Y, N679K, and P681H result in increased S1/S2 furin cleavage and facilitate efficient viral entry into the host.”
Background
Sertraline Is an Effective SARS-CoV-2 Entry Inhibitor Targeting the Spike Protein
Chen, Y., Wu, Y., Chen, S., Zhan, Q., Wu, D., Yang, C., He, X., Qiu, M., Zhang, N., Li, Z., et al. (2022) · Journal of Virology · doi:10.1128/jvi.01245-22 · Cited by 27
Neutralizing activity of Sputnik V vaccine sera against SARS-CoV-2 variantsPreprint
Ikegame, S., Siddiquey, M. N. A., Hung, C.-T., Haas, G. D., Brambilla, L., Oguntuyo, K. Y., Kowdle, S., Vilardo, A. E., Edelstein, A., Perandones, C., et al. (2021) · Research Square · doi:10.21203/rs.3.rs-400230/v1 · Cited by 27
“As expected, the P.1 and B.1.351 variants escape or resist neutralization by ﬁrst wave convalescent sera, as well as antibodies elicited by COVID-19 vaccines (Garcia-Beltran et al. , 2021; Wang et al. , 2021; Wibmer et al. , 2021; Y. Liu et al. , 2021; Zhou et al. , 2021).”
Influential
S glycoprotein diversity of the Omicron variantPreprint
Sarkar, R., Lo, M., Saha, R., Dutta, S., & Chawla‐Sarkar, M. (2021) · medRxiv · doi:10.1101/2021.12.04.21267284 · Cited by 26
“The K477N has been shown to confer resistant against monoclonal antibodies, but not convalescent plasma [32].”
Background
Rapid SARS-CoV-2 variant monitoring using PCR confirmed by whole genome sequencing in a high-volume diagnostic laboratory
Lind, A., Barlinn, R., Landaas, E. T., Andresen, L. L., Jakobsen, K., Fladeby, C., Nilsen, M., Bjørnstad, P. M., Sundaram, A. Y. M., Ribarska, T., et al. (2021) · Journal of Clinical Virology · doi:10.1016/j.jcv.2021.104906 · Cited by 26
“4 with immune evasion or attenuated immune responses, respectively [22, 23].”
TMPRSS2 and RNA-Dependent RNA Polymerase Are Effective Targets of Therapeutic Intervention for Treatment of COVID-19 Caused by SARS-CoV-2 Variants (B.1.1.7 and B.1.351)
Lee, J., Lee, J., Kim, H. J., Ko, M., Jee, Y., & Kim, S. (2021) · Microbiology Spectrum · doi:10.1128/spectrum.00472-21 · Cited by 28
“Indeed, several results are being published, 60 which demonstrated reduced neutralization capacity of convalescent plasma, vaccine sera, 61 and monoclonal antibodies against these variants (6)(7)(8)(9).”
Background
Rapid test to assess the escape of SARS-CoV-2 variants of concern
Heggestad, J. T., Britton, R. J., Kinnamon, D., Wall, S. A., Joh, D. Y., Hucknall, A., Olson, L. B., Anderson, J. G., Mazur, A., Wolfe, C. R., et al. (2021) · Science Advances · doi:10.1126/sciadv.abl7682 · Cited by 25
Dynamics of SARS-CoV-2 Alpha (B.1.1.7) variant spread: The wastewater surveillance approach
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The SARS-CoV-2 Delta variant induces an antibody response largely focused on class 1 and 2 antibody epitopes
Greaney, A. J., Eguia, R. T., Starr, T. N., Khan, K., Franko, N., Logue, J. K., Lord, S. M., Speake, C., Chu, H. Y., Sigal, A., et al. (2022) · PLoS Pathogens · doi:10.1371/journal.ppat.1010592 · Cited by 29
A highly efficacious live attenuated mumps virus–based SARS-CoV-2 vaccine candidate expressing a six-proline stabilized prefusion spike
Zhang, Y., Lu, M., Mahesh, K. C., Kim, E., Shamseldin, M. M., Ye, C., Dravid, P., Chamblee, M., Park, J., Hall, J. M., et al. (2022) · Proceedings of the National Academy of Sciences · doi:10.1073/pnas.2201616119 · Cited by 26
A comprehensive study of SARS-CoV-2 main protease (Mpro) inhibitor-resistant mutants selected in a VSV-based system
Costacurta, F., Dodaro, A., Bante, D., Schöppe, H., Peng, J.-Y., Sprenger, B., He, X. C., Moghadasi, S. A., Egger, L. M., Fleischmann, J., et al. (2024) · PLoS Pathogens · doi:10.1371/journal.ppat.1012522 · Cited by 26
“Chimeric VSV-Spike, where the VSV glycoprotein G was replaced by the SARS-CoV-2 spike, has been used previously to predict antibody escape mutations [62–64].”
Method
Rapid Inactivation of SARS-CoV-2 Variants by Continuous and Intermittent Irradiation with a Deep-Ultraviolet Light-Emitting Diode (DUV-LED) Device
Inagaki, H., Saito, A., Kaneko, C., Sugiyama, H., Okabayashi, T., & Fujimoto, S. (2021) · Pathogens · doi:10.3390/pathogens10060754 · Cited by 26
Bovine-derived antibodies and camelid-derived nanobodies as biotherapeutic weapons against SARS-CoV-2 and its variants: A review article
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High-resolution profiling of MHC II peptide presentation capacity reveals SARS-CoV-2 CD4 T cell targets and mechanisms of immune escape
Obermair, F.-J., Renoux, F., Heer, S., Lee, C. H.-J., Cereghetti, N., Loi, M., Maestri, G., Haldner, Y., Wuigk, R., Iosefson, O., et al. (2022) · Science Advances · doi:10.1126/sciadv.abl5394 · Cited by 26
Identification and Development of Therapeutics for COVID-19
Rando, H. M., Wellhausen, N., Ghosh, S., Lee, A. J., Dattoli, A. A., Hu, F., Byrd, J. B., Rafizadeh, D. N., Qi, Y., Sun, Y., et al. (2021) · Lund University Publications (Lund University) · Cited by 26
Anti-Fungal Drug Anidulafungin Inhibits SARS-CoV-2 Spike-Induced Syncytia Formation by Targeting ACE2-Spike Protein Interaction
Ahamad, S., Ali, H., Secco, I., Giacca, M., & Gupta, D. K. (2022) · Frontiers in Genetics · doi:10.3389/fgene.2022.866474 · Cited by 25
“Several of these mutations occur in the highly antigenic S protein, which endows several of the variants with the ability to escape part of the neutralizing antibody response (Weisblum et al., 2020; Liu et al., 2021; Planas et al., 2021; Rees-Spear et al., 2021; Starr et al., 2021).”
Background

Authors: Liu, Z., VanBlargan, L. A., Bloyet, L.-M., Rothlauf, P. W., Chen, R. E., Stumpf, S., Zhao, H., Errico, J. M., Theel, E. S., Liebeskind, M. J., Alford, B., Buchser, W. J., Ellebedy, A. H., Fremont, D. H., Diamond, M. S., & Whelan, S. P. J.
Affiliations: Washington University in St. Louis (US)
Harvard University (US)
Mayo Clinic (US)
Corresponding author: Diamond, Michael S.
Whelan, Sean P.J.
ORCID: Liu, Zhuoming
VanBlargan, Laura A.
Bloyet, Louis-Marie
Rothlauf, Paul W.
Chen, Rita E.
Stumpf, Spencer
Zhao, Haiyan
Errico, John M.
Theel, Elitza S.
Liebeskind, Mariel J.
Buchser, William J.
Ellebedy, Ali H.
Fremont, Daved H.
Diamond, Michael S.
Whelan, Sean P.J.
Venue: Cell Host & Microbe
Publisher: Elsevier BV
Published: 2021-03
Volume: 29
Issue: 3
Pages: 477-488.e4
ISSN: 1931-3128 (ISSN-L)
DOI: 10.1016/j.chom.2021.01.014
PMC: PMC7839837
OpenAlex: W3121995178
Cited by: 725
References: 38
Citations by year: 2026: 11 · 2025: 22 · 2024: 57 · 2023: 77 · 2022: 255 · 2021: 302
FWCI: 55.27
Type: journal article
Language: en
Open access: bronze
doi.org
Licence: www.elsevier.com/tdm/userlicense/1.0/ (tdm)
www.elsevier.com/legal/tdmrep-license (tdm)
www.elsevier.com/open-access/userlicense/1.0/ (vor, 374 d)
doi.org/10.15223/policy-017 (stm-asf)
doi.org/10.15223/policy-037 (stm-asf)
doi.org/10.15223/policy-012 (stm-asf)
doi.org/10.15223/policy-029 (stm-asf)
doi.org/10.15223/policy-004 (stm-asf)
Locations: Cell Host & Microbe (publishedVersion)
PubMed Central (publishedVersion)
PubMed (publishedVersion)
HAL (submittedVersion)
Funders: Washington University in St. Louis
University of Washington
Saint Louis University
National Institutes of Health (75N93019C00062, R01 AI127828, R01 AI157155, R37 AI059371)
AbbVie
Defense Advanced Research Projects Agency (HR001117S0019)
Topics: Health Sciences › Medicine › Infectious Diseases › SARS-CoV-2 and COVID-19 Research
Life Sciences › Biochemistry, Genetics and Molecular Biology › Molecular Biology › vaccines and immunoinformatics approaches
Life Sciences › Agricultural and Biological Sciences › Animal Science and Zoology › Animal Virus Infections Studies
Keywords: SARS-CoV-2 spike protein, antibody escape mutants, neutralizing monoclonal antibodies, receptor binding domain, E484K mutation
MeSH terms: Angiotensin-Converting Enzyme 2, COVID-19, SARS-CoV-2, COVID-19 Vaccines, Animals, Antibodies, Monoclonal, Antibodies, Viral, Chlorocebus aethiops, Female, Humans, Mice, Inbred BALB C, Models, Molecular, Mutation, Neutralization Tests, Protein Binding, Receptors, Virus, Vero Cells, Amino Acid Substitution, Mice, Antibodies, Neutralizing, Spike Glycoprotein, Coronavirus

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Identification of SARS-CoV-2 spike mutations that attenuate monoclonal and serum antibody neutralization

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