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Cited by 230Cancer, Hypoxia, and MetabolismAmino Acid Enzymes and MetabolismMetabolism, Diabetes, and Cancer

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A Role for p53 in the Adaptation to Glutamine Starvation through the Expression of SLC1A3

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Tajan, Mylène, Hock, Andreas K., Blagih, Julianna, Robertson, Neil A., Labuschagne, Christiaan F., Kruiswijk, Flore, Humpton, Timothy J., Adams, Peter D., Vousden, Karen H.·2018·Cell Metabolism
DOI 10.1016/j.cmet.2018.07.005PMC PMC6224545
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Abstract

Numerous mechanisms to support cells under conditions of transient nutrient starvation have been described. Several functions of the tumor-suppressor protein p53 can contribute to the adaptation of cells to metabolic stress and help cancer cell survival under nutrient-limiting conditions. We show here that p53 promotes the expression of SLC1A3, an aspartate/glutamate transporter that allows the utilization of aspartate to support cells in the absence of extracellular glutamine. Under glutamine deprivation, SLC1A3 expression maintains electron transport chain and tricarboxylic acid cycle activity, promoting de novo glutamate, glutamine, and nucleotide synthesis to rescue cell viability. Tumor cells with high levels of SLC1A3 expression are resistant to glutamine starvation, and SLC1A3 depletion retards the growth of these cells in vitro and in vivo, suggesting a therapeutic potential for SLC1A3 inhibition.

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Figure 1 Glutamine Starvation Induces p53 Activation to Promote Survival and Proliferation (A) HCT116 and RKO cells were grown in glutamine-free medium and total cell numbers were counted every 2 days. Data are presented as means of triplicate wells ± SEM. (B) Ingenuity Pathway Analysis comparing HCT116 cells grown in complete medium versus those grown in equivalent medium lacking glutamine for 48 hr. (C) HCT116 cells were grown in glutamine-free medium for 6 days. Cell lysates were probed for phospho-p53(Ser15), total p53, p21, and ACTIN. Westerns blots from three independent experiments were quantified and data presented as mean ± SEM. (D) Western blot analysis shows p53 expression in HCT116 parental, wild-type (WT), and p53-null clones. (E) Growth assays of isogenic HCT116 cell lines under glutamine-free conditions (LHS). Data are presented as mean ± SEM of three wells from one representative experiment. Viability assays (RHS) of HCT116 isogenic cells after 6 days in glutamine-free medium. Graph represents the percentage of dead cells, and data are presented as mean of 3 wells ± SEM of one representative experiment. (F) HCT116 WT or p53-null clones were cultured for 3 days in complete medium with the glutaminase inhibitor CB-839 (0.5 μM or 1 μM). The graph shows the percentage growth compared with control condition (DMSO). Data are presented as mean ± SEM from three independent experiments (∗p < 0.05; ∗∗p < 0.01, paired two-tailed Student’s t test). (G) Tumor volumes of HCT116 WT1 xenografts dosed orally with vehicle (n = 5) or 200 mg/kg CB-839 (n = 5) twice daily for 14 days. The graph shows the percentage of increase in tumor volume from the initial tumor volume measured before treatment. Data are presented as mean ± SEM. (H) Tumor volumes of HCT116 p53-null clone 1 (KO1) xenografts dosed orally with vehicle (CTR) (n = 7) or 200 mg/kg CB-839 (n = 6) twice daily for 14 days. The graph shows the percentage of increase in tumor volume from the initial tumor volume measured before treatment. Data are presented as mean ± SEM (two-way ANOVA plus Bonferroni’s post hoc test). (I) Glutamate/glutamine ratio measured by LC-MS in tumor lysates from animals treated with vehicle (CTR) (n = 7 for WT1; n = 7 for p53 KO1) or CB-839 (n = 8 for WT1; n = 8 for p53 KO1), 4 hr after their final gavage and normalized to the tumor extract mass. Data are presented as mean ± SEM (∗∗∗p < 0.001, Mann-Whitney nonparametric test).
Figure 1 Glutamine Starvation Induces p53 Activation to Promote Survival and Proliferation (A) HCT116 and RKO cells were grown in glutamine-free medium and total cell numbers were counted every 2 days. Data are presented as means of triplicate wells ± SEM. (B) Ingenuity Pathway Analysis comparing HCT116 cells grown in complete medium versus those grown in equivalent medium lacking glutamine for 48 hr. (C) HCT116 cells were grown in glutamine-free medium for 6 days. Cell lysates were probed for phospho-p53(Ser15), total p53, p21, and ACTIN. Westerns blots from three independent experiments were quantified and data presented as mean ± SEM. (D) Western blot analysis shows p53 expression in HCT116 parental, wild-type (WT), and p53-null clones. (E) Growth assays of isogenic HCT116 cell lines under glutamine-free conditions (LHS). Data are presented as mean ± SEM of three wells from one representative experiment. Viability assays (RHS) of HCT116 isogenic cells after 6 days in glutamine-free medium. Graph represents the percentage of dead cells, and data are presented as mean of 3 wells ± SEM of one representative experiment. (F) HCT116 WT or p53-null clones were cultured for 3 days in complete medium with the glutaminase inhibitor CB-839 (0.5 μM or 1 μM). The graph shows the percentage growth compared with control condition (DMSO). Data are presented as mean ± SEM from three independent experiments (∗p < 0.05; ∗∗p < 0.01, paired two-tailed Student’s t test). (G) Tumor volumes of HCT116 WT1 xenografts dosed orally with vehicle (n = 5) or 200 mg/kg CB-839 (n = 5) twice daily for 14 days. The graph shows the percentage of increase in tumor volume from the initial tumor volume measured before treatment. Data are presented as mean ± SEM. (H) Tumor volumes of HCT116 p53-null clone 1 (KO1) xenografts dosed orally with vehicle (CTR) (n = 7) or 200 mg/kg CB-839 (n = 6) twice daily for 14 days. The graph shows the percentage of increase in tumor volume from the initial tumor volume measured before treatment. Data are presented as mean ± SEM (two-way ANOVA plus Bonferroni’s post hoc test). (I) Glutamate/glutamine ratio measured by LC-MS in tumor lysates from animals treated with vehicle (CTR) (n = 7 for WT1; n = 7 for p53 KO1) or CB-839 (n = 8 for WT1; n = 8 for p53 KO1), 4 hr after their final gavage and normalized to the tumor extract mass. Data are presented as mean ± SEM (∗∗∗p < 0.001, Mann-Whitney nonparametric test).CC BY · PubMed Central
Figure 2 p53 Sustains TCA-Cycle Activity and De Novo Synthesis of Glutamate and Glutamine upon Glutamine Withdrawal (A) Intracellular glutamine levels in HCT116 isogenic cell lines grown for 3 or 5 days in glutamine-free medium (mean ± SEM of triplicate wells). (B) Cells were grown in glutamine-free medium for 4 days and extracellular glutamine levels quantified 1, 4, 16, and 24 hr after medium change, normalized to cell number (mean ± SEM of triplicate wells versus fresh medium). (C) HCT116 isogenic cell lines were cultured in glutamine-deficient medium for 3 or 5 days and stable isotopomer tracing analysis with [U-13C]glucose was performed. Metabolites were extracted and analyzed for glucose-derived isotopomer distribution of glutamine. Data are presented as mean ± SEM of triplicate wells. (D) TCA-cycle intermediates and glutamate analyzed as in (C). Data are presented as mean ± SEM of triplicate wells. (E) Metabolites were extracted from the tumors derived from HCT116 WT1 or p53 KO1 xenografts 4 hr after the final gavage with vehicle (CTR) (n = 7 for WT1; n = 7 for p53 KO1) or CB-839 (n = 8 for WT1; n = 8 for p53 KO1) and normalized to the tumor extract mass. Data are presented as mean ± SEM (∗∗p < 0.01, Mann-Whitney nonparametric test; ns, not significant). (F) Intracellular α-ketoglutarate levels in HCT116 WT and p53-null clones supplemented with or without dimethyl α-ketoglutarate (DMKG) under glutamine-free conditions (LHS). Data are presented as means ± SEM of triplicate wells. Proliferation (RHS) of WT and p53-null clones in the presence of DMKG. Data are presented as mean ± SEM of one representative experiment (averages of triplicate wells). See also Figure S1.
Figure 2 p53 Sustains TCA-Cycle Activity and De Novo Synthesis of Glutamate and Glutamine upon Glutamine Withdrawal (A) Intracellular glutamine levels in HCT116 isogenic cell lines grown for 3 or 5 days in glutamine-free medium (mean ± SEM of triplicate wells). (B) Cells were grown in glutamine-free medium for 4 days and extracellular glutamine levels quantified 1, 4, 16, and 24 hr after medium change, normalized to cell number (mean ± SEM of triplicate wells versus fresh medium). (C) HCT116 isogenic cell lines were cultured in glutamine-deficient medium for 3 or 5 days and stable isotopomer tracing analysis with [U-13C]glucose was performed. Metabolites were extracted and analyzed for glucose-derived isotopomer distribution of glutamine. Data are presented as mean ± SEM of triplicate wells. (D) TCA-cycle intermediates and glutamate analyzed as in (C). Data are presented as mean ± SEM of triplicate wells. (E) Metabolites were extracted from the tumors derived from HCT116 WT1 or p53 KO1 xenografts 4 hr after the final gavage with vehicle (CTR) (n = 7 for WT1; n = 7 for p53 KO1) or CB-839 (n = 8 for WT1; n = 8 for p53 KO1) and normalized to the tumor extract mass. Data are presented as mean ± SEM (∗∗p < 0.01, Mann-Whitney nonparametric test; ns, not significant). (F) Intracellular α-ketoglutarate levels in HCT116 WT and p53-null clones supplemented with or without dimethyl α-ketoglutarate (DMKG) under glutamine-free conditions (LHS). Data are presented as means ± SEM of triplicate wells. Proliferation (RHS) of WT and p53-null clones in the presence of DMKG. Data are presented as mean ± SEM of one representative experiment (averages of triplicate wells). See also Figure S1.CC BY · PubMed Central
Figure 3 p53 Sustains Aspartate Metabolism under Glutamine Deprivation (A) HCT116 WT and KO clones were cultured in glutamine-free medium for 4 days. Extracellular serine, alanine, and aspartate, normalized to cell number, was quantified over 24 hr. Data are presented as mean ± SEM of one representative experiment (averages of triplicate wells). (B) Isotope tracing of [15N]aspartate into intracellular glutamate and glutamine. Metabolite percentages in glutamine-deprived HCT116 clones are represented as mean ± SEM of triplicate wells. (C) Isotope tracing of [U-13C, 15N]alanine into intracellular glutamate and glutamine. Metabolite percentages in glutamine-deprived HCT116 clones are presented as mean ± SEM of triplicate wells. (D) Stable isotopomer tracing analysis of [U-13C]aspartate incorporation into TCA-cycle intermediates in HCT116 isogenic cells 5 days after glutamine starvation. Data are presented as mean ± SEM of one representative experiment (averages of triplicate wells). (E) Proliferation of HCT116 WT cells transiently depleted of GOT1 and GOT2 using short interfering RNA (siRNA) and cultured in glutamine-free condition for 6 days. Data are presented as mean ± SEM of one representative experiment (averages of triplicate wells). The downregulation of these two enzymes was confirmed by western blot analysis (bottom panels). (F) Proliferation of HCT116 WT cells transiently depleted of GOT1 and GOT2 under fully fed conditions. Data are presented as mean ± SEM of one representative experiment (averages of triplicate wells). (G) Western blot analysis demonstrating the time course of GOT1 and GOT2 expression in HCT116 parental, WT1, and p53-KO1 clones grown in glutamine-free medium over 8 days. See also Figures S2 and S3.
Figure 3 p53 Sustains Aspartate Metabolism under Glutamine Deprivation (A) HCT116 WT and KO clones were cultured in glutamine-free medium for 4 days. Extracellular serine, alanine, and aspartate, normalized to cell number, was quantified over 24 hr. Data are presented as mean ± SEM of one representative experiment (averages of triplicate wells). (B) Isotope tracing of [15N]aspartate into intracellular glutamate and glutamine. Metabolite percentages in glutamine-deprived HCT116 clones are represented as mean ± SEM of triplicate wells. (C) Isotope tracing of [U-13C, 15N]alanine into intracellular glutamate and glutamine. Metabolite percentages in glutamine-deprived HCT116 clones are presented as mean ± SEM of triplicate wells. (D) Stable isotopomer tracing analysis of [U-13C]aspartate incorporation into TCA-cycle intermediates in HCT116 isogenic cells 5 days after glutamine starvation. Data are presented as mean ± SEM of one representative experiment (averages of triplicate wells). (E) Proliferation of HCT116 WT cells transiently depleted of GOT1 and GOT2 using short interfering RNA (siRNA) and cultured in glutamine-free condition for 6 days. Data are presented as mean ± SEM of one representative experiment (averages of triplicate wells). The downregulation of these two enzymes was confirmed by western blot analysis (bottom panels). (F) Proliferation of HCT116 WT cells transiently depleted of GOT1 and GOT2 under fully fed conditions. Data are presented as mean ± SEM of one representative experiment (averages of triplicate wells). (G) Western blot analysis demonstrating the time course of GOT1 and GOT2 expression in HCT116 parental, WT1, and p53-KO1 clones grown in glutamine-free medium over 8 days. See also Figures S2 and S3.CC BY · PubMed Central
Figure 4 SLC1A3 Is a p53 Target that Sustains the Growth of Cancer Cell Lines under Glutamine Deprivation (A) SLC1A3 transcriptional expression in HCT116 WT and p53-null clones grown for 2 days in glutamine-free medium. Data are presented as mean ± SEM (averages of triplicate wells). (B) Western blots show SLC1A3 expression in HCT116 WT and p53-null clones grown for 2 days in glutamine-free medium. Note that AGC2 and SLC1A3 (Figure S7D) were probed on the same membrane, so the same ACTIN western blot is shown here and in Figure S7D. (C and D) HCT116 WT cells were transiently depleted of SLC1A3 using siRNA, and proliferation assessed in complete medium (C) or in glutamine-free medium (D). Data are presented as mean ± SEM of one representative experiment (averages of triplicate wells). The downregulation of SLC1A3 was confirmed by western blot (D, right panel). Note that siCTR and siSLC1A3 samples were run on the same gel but intervening lanes have been removed (cut indicated by gray line). (E) MDA-MB-468, OVCAR-4, and IGROV1 cells infected with Cas9/SLC1A3 single guide RNA were cultured in glutamine-free medium for 2 days. Western blot shows efficient SLC1A3 depletion in Cas9/SLC1A3-infected cells. (F) Proliferation rates of cells cultured in complete medium (top panel) or in glutamine-free medium (bottom panel). Data are presented as mean ± SEM of one representative experiment (average of triplicate wells). (G) BALB/c nude mice were subcutaneously injected with MDA-MB-468 NTC cells (n = 6) or SLC1A3 KO cells (n = 8). Once the tumors were palpable, tumor volumes were measured twice a week by caliper measurement. Data are presented as mean ± SEM (∗p < 0.05, ∗∗p < 0.01, ∗∗∗∗p < 0.0001, two-way ANOVA plus Bonferroni’s post hoc test). (H) CD-1 nude mice were subcutaneously injected with IGROV1 NTC cells (n = 9) or SLC1A3 KO cells (n = 10). Once the tumors were palpable, tumor volumes were measured twice a week by caliper measurement. Data are presented as mean ± SEM (∗p < 0.05, two-way ANOVA plus Bonferroni’s post hoc test). See also Figures S4 and S5.
Figure 4 SLC1A3 Is a p53 Target that Sustains the Growth of Cancer Cell Lines under Glutamine Deprivation (A) SLC1A3 transcriptional expression in HCT116 WT and p53-null clones grown for 2 days in glutamine-free medium. Data are presented as mean ± SEM (averages of triplicate wells). (B) Western blots show SLC1A3 expression in HCT116 WT and p53-null clones grown for 2 days in glutamine-free medium. Note that AGC2 and SLC1A3 (Figure S7D) were probed on the same membrane, so the same ACTIN western blot is shown here and in Figure S7D. (C and D) HCT116 WT cells were transiently depleted of SLC1A3 using siRNA, and proliferation assessed in complete medium (C) or in glutamine-free medium (D). Data are presented as mean ± SEM of one representative experiment (averages of triplicate wells). The downregulation of SLC1A3 was confirmed by western blot (D, right panel). Note that siCTR and siSLC1A3 samples were run on the same gel but intervening lanes have been removed (cut indicated by gray line). (E) MDA-MB-468, OVCAR-4, and IGROV1 cells infected with Cas9/SLC1A3 single guide RNA were cultured in glutamine-free medium for 2 days. Western blot shows efficient SLC1A3 depletion in Cas9/SLC1A3-infected cells. (F) Proliferation rates of cells cultured in complete medium (top panel) or in glutamine-free medium (bottom panel). Data are presented as mean ± SEM of one representative experiment (average of triplicate wells). (G) BALB/c nude mice were subcutaneously injected with MDA-MB-468 NTC cells (n = 6) or SLC1A3 KO cells (n = 8). Once the tumors were palpable, tumor volumes were measured twice a week by caliper measurement. Data are presented as mean ± SEM (∗p < 0.05, ∗∗p < 0.01, ∗∗∗∗p < 0.0001, two-way ANOVA plus Bonferroni’s post hoc test). (H) CD-1 nude mice were subcutaneously injected with IGROV1 NTC cells (n = 9) or SLC1A3 KO cells (n = 10). Once the tumors were palpable, tumor volumes were measured twice a week by caliper measurement. Data are presented as mean ± SEM (∗p < 0.05, two-way ANOVA plus Bonferroni’s post hoc test). See also Figures S4 and S5.CC BY · PubMed Central
Figure 5 SLC1A3 Depletion Reduces Aspartate Uptake and TCA Activity under Glutamine Deprivation, Phenocopying Loss of p53 (A) HCT116 WT cells transiently depleted of SLC1A3 using siRNA were grown for 2 days in glutamine-free medium and pulsed with [U-13C]aspartate for the final 24 hr. Extracellular levels of aspartate (m+4), normalized to cell number, were quantified over 24 hr. Data are presented as mean ± SEM of one representative experiment (averages of triplicate wells). (B) IGROV1, MDA-MB-468, and OVCAR4 WT and SLC1A3 KO cells were grown for 3 days in glutamine-free medium and pulsed with [U-13C]aspartate for the final 16 hr. Extracellular levels of aspartate (m+4), normalized to cell number, were quantified over 16 hr. Data are presented as mean ± SEM of one representative experiment (averages of triplicate wells). (C) IGROV1, MDA-MB-468, and OVCAR4 WT and SLC1A3 KO cells were grown for 3 days in glutamine-free medium and pulsed with [U-13C]aspartate for the final 16 hr. Intracellular aspartate level was analyzed. Data are presented as mean ± SEM of one representative experiment (averages of triplicate wells). (D–F) HCT116 WT cells transiently depleted of SLC1A3 using siRNA were grown for 2 days in glutamine-free medium and pulsed with [U-13C]aspartate for the final 16 hr. Stable isotopomer tracing analysis of intracellular aspartate (D), TCA-cycle intermediates (E), and glutamate and glutamine levels (F) is shown. Data are presented as mean ± SEM of one representative experiment (averages of triplicate wells). (G and H) IGROV1, MDA-MB-468, and OVCAR4 WT and SLC1A3 KO cells were grown for 3 days in glutamine-free medium and pulsed with [U-13C]aspartate for the final 16 hr. Stable isotopomer tracing analysis of intracellular TCA-cycle intermediates (G) and glutamate and glutamine levels (H) is shown. Data are presented as mean ± SEM of one representative experiment (averages of triplicate wells). See also Figure S6.
Figure 5 SLC1A3 Depletion Reduces Aspartate Uptake and TCA Activity under Glutamine Deprivation, Phenocopying Loss of p53 (A) HCT116 WT cells transiently depleted of SLC1A3 using siRNA were grown for 2 days in glutamine-free medium and pulsed with [U-13C]aspartate for the final 24 hr. Extracellular levels of aspartate (m+4), normalized to cell number, were quantified over 24 hr. Data are presented as mean ± SEM of one representative experiment (averages of triplicate wells). (B) IGROV1, MDA-MB-468, and OVCAR4 WT and SLC1A3 KO cells were grown for 3 days in glutamine-free medium and pulsed with [U-13C]aspartate for the final 16 hr. Extracellular levels of aspartate (m+4), normalized to cell number, were quantified over 16 hr. Data are presented as mean ± SEM of one representative experiment (averages of triplicate wells). (C) IGROV1, MDA-MB-468, and OVCAR4 WT and SLC1A3 KO cells were grown for 3 days in glutamine-free medium and pulsed with [U-13C]aspartate for the final 16 hr. Intracellular aspartate level was analyzed. Data are presented as mean ± SEM of one representative experiment (averages of triplicate wells). (D–F) HCT116 WT cells transiently depleted of SLC1A3 using siRNA were grown for 2 days in glutamine-free medium and pulsed with [U-13C]aspartate for the final 16 hr. Stable isotopomer tracing analysis of intracellular aspartate (D), TCA-cycle intermediates (E), and glutamate and glutamine levels (F) is shown. Data are presented as mean ± SEM of one representative experiment (averages of triplicate wells). (G and H) IGROV1, MDA-MB-468, and OVCAR4 WT and SLC1A3 KO cells were grown for 3 days in glutamine-free medium and pulsed with [U-13C]aspartate for the final 16 hr. Stable isotopomer tracing analysis of intracellular TCA-cycle intermediates (G) and glutamate and glutamine levels (H) is shown. Data are presented as mean ± SEM of one representative experiment (averages of triplicate wells). See also Figure S6.CC BY · PubMed Central
Figure 6 Deletion of SLC1A3 Impedes the ETC and Phenocopies Depletion of the Mitochondrial Aspartate Transporters AGC1 and AGC2 under Glutamine Deprivation (A) Schematic representation of the malate-aspartate shuttle (MAS). In brief, the MAS is a system that allows the transfer of electrons from cytosolic NADH to produce mitochondrial NADH where it is oxidized in the ETC. In the cytoplasm MDH1 catalyzes the reduction of oxaloacetate (OAA), where it accepts an electron from NADH to produce malate and NAD+. Malate can then enter the mitochondria where it is oxidized by MDH2 to OAA, resulting in the formation of mitochondrial NADH. Mitochondrial OAA is transaminated into aspartate by GOT2 whereby aspartate exits the mitochondria in exchange for cytosolic glutamate through a carrier. OAA is recovered in the cytosol by GOT1. By coupling aspartate-glutamate exchange, the aspartate-glutamate carrier is essential for the shuttle and is thought to represent the rate-limiting step. (B) Respiratory profiles of HCT116 WT cells transiently depleted of SLC1A3 and grown for 24 hr in glutamine-free medium, in the presence of mitochondrial inhibitors (oligomycin, FCCP [carbonyl cyanide-4-(trifluoromethoxy)phenylhydrazone] antimycin A/rotenone). Arrows indicate incubation of cells with the indicated inhibitors. Data are presented as mean ± SEM of one representative experiment (n = 6 wells). (C) Oxygen consumption rates (OCR) of HCT116 WT and p53-null clones 2 days after glutamine deprivation as in (B). Data are presented as mean ± SEM of one representative experiment (n = 6 wells). (D) Proliferation of HCT116 WT cells transiently depleted of AGC1 or AGC2 using siRNA and cultured in glutamine-free condition (LHS) or complete medium (RHS). Data are presented as mean ± SEM of one representative experiment (averages of triplicate wells). The downregulation of these two proteins was confirmed by western blot (middle panel). (E) HCT116 WT cells transiently depleted of AGC1 or AGC2 using siRNA were grown for 2 days in glutamine-free medium and pulsed with [U-13C]aspartate for the final 24 hr. Extracellular levels of aspartate (m+4), alanine, and serine normalized to cell number were quantified over 24 hr. Data are presented as mean ± SEM of one representative experiment (averages of triplicate wells). (F and G) HCT116 WT cells transiently depleted of AGC1 or AGC2 using siRNA were grown for 2 days in glutamine-free medium and pulsed with [U-13C]aspartate for the final 24 hr. Intracellular TCA-cycle intermediates (F) and glutamate and glutamine levels (G) were measured. Data are presented as mean ± SEM of one representative experiment (averages of triplicate wells). See also Figure S7.
Figure 6 Deletion of SLC1A3 Impedes the ETC and Phenocopies Depletion of the Mitochondrial Aspartate Transporters AGC1 and AGC2 under Glutamine Deprivation (A) Schematic representation of the malate-aspartate shuttle (MAS). In brief, the MAS is a system that allows the transfer of electrons from cytosolic NADH to produce mitochondrial NADH where it is oxidized in the ETC. In the cytoplasm MDH1 catalyzes the reduction of oxaloacetate (OAA), where it accepts an electron from NADH to produce malate and NAD+. Malate can then enter the mitochondria where it is oxidized by MDH2 to OAA, resulting in the formation of mitochondrial NADH. Mitochondrial OAA is transaminated into aspartate by GOT2 whereby aspartate exits the mitochondria in exchange for cytosolic glutamate through a carrier. OAA is recovered in the cytosol by GOT1. By coupling aspartate-glutamate exchange, the aspartate-glutamate carrier is essential for the shuttle and is thought to represent the rate-limiting step. (B) Respiratory profiles of HCT116 WT cells transiently depleted of SLC1A3 and grown for 24 hr in glutamine-free medium, in the presence of mitochondrial inhibitors (oligomycin, FCCP [carbonyl cyanide-4-(trifluoromethoxy)phenylhydrazone] antimycin A/rotenone). Arrows indicate incubation of cells with the indicated inhibitors. Data are presented as mean ± SEM of one representative experiment (n = 6 wells). (C) Oxygen consumption rates (OCR) of HCT116 WT and p53-null clones 2 days after glutamine deprivation as in (B). Data are presented as mean ± SEM of one representative experiment (n = 6 wells). (D) Proliferation of HCT116 WT cells transiently depleted of AGC1 or AGC2 using siRNA and cultured in glutamine-free condition (LHS) or complete medium (RHS). Data are presented as mean ± SEM of one representative experiment (averages of triplicate wells). The downregulation of these two proteins was confirmed by western blot (middle panel). (E) HCT116 WT cells transiently depleted of AGC1 or AGC2 using siRNA were grown for 2 days in glutamine-free medium and pulsed with [U-13C]aspartate for the final 24 hr. Extracellular levels of aspartate (m+4), alanine, and serine normalized to cell number were quantified over 24 hr. Data are presented as mean ± SEM of one representative experiment (averages of triplicate wells). (F and G) HCT116 WT cells transiently depleted of AGC1 or AGC2 using siRNA were grown for 2 days in glutamine-free medium and pulsed with [U-13C]aspartate for the final 24 hr. Intracellular TCA-cycle intermediates (F) and glutamate and glutamine levels (G) were measured. Data are presented as mean ± SEM of one representative experiment (averages of triplicate wells). See also Figure S7.CC BY · PubMed Central
Figure 7 SLC1A3 Re-expression Rescues Survival and Metabolic Deficiency in p53-Null Cells under Glutamine Deprivation (A) p53-null HCT116 cells were infected with a control vector (EV) or a vector encoding SLC1A3 (SLC1A3). Western blot shows efficient SLC1A3 re-expression in these cells when cultured in complete medium (D0) or for 2 days in glutamine-free medium (D2). (B) Proliferation rates of the p53-null cells infected with a control vector or a vector encoding SLC1A3 under complete medium (LHS) or glutamine-free conditions (RHS). Data are presented as mean ± SEM of one representative experiment (averages of triplicate wells). (C) Representative pictures of p53-null cells infected with a control vector or a vector encoding SLC1A3 and cultured for 3 days in glutamine-free medium. Viability of these cells grown for 4 days in glutamine-free medium was assessed by fluorescence-activated cell sorting. Data are presented as mean ± SEM of one representative experiment (averages of triplicate wells). (D) p53-null cells infected with a control vector or a vector encoding SLC1A3 were fed complete medium or glutamine-deficient medium for 2 days in the presence of [U-13C]aspartate for the final 16 hr. LC-MS was used for stable isotopomer tracing of TCA-cycle intermediates. Data are presented as mean ± SEM of one representative experiment (averages of triplicate wells). (E) Analysis of glutamate and glutamine levels in cells treated as in (D). Data are presented as mean ± SEM of one representative experiment (averages of triplicate wells). (F) p53-null cells infected with a control vector or a vector encoding SLC1A3 were cultured for 3 days in complete medium in the presence of the glutaminase inhibitor CB-839 (0.1 μM, 0.5 μM, or 1 μM). The graph shows the percentage of growth compared with the untreated condition (DMSO). Data are presented as mean ± SEM from three independent experiments (∗p < 0.05, ∗∗p < 0.01, paired two-tailed Student’s t test).
Figure 7 SLC1A3 Re-expression Rescues Survival and Metabolic Deficiency in p53-Null Cells under Glutamine Deprivation (A) p53-null HCT116 cells were infected with a control vector (EV) or a vector encoding SLC1A3 (SLC1A3). Western blot shows efficient SLC1A3 re-expression in these cells when cultured in complete medium (D0) or for 2 days in glutamine-free medium (D2). (B) Proliferation rates of the p53-null cells infected with a control vector or a vector encoding SLC1A3 under complete medium (LHS) or glutamine-free conditions (RHS). Data are presented as mean ± SEM of one representative experiment (averages of triplicate wells). (C) Representative pictures of p53-null cells infected with a control vector or a vector encoding SLC1A3 and cultured for 3 days in glutamine-free medium. Viability of these cells grown for 4 days in glutamine-free medium was assessed by fluorescence-activated cell sorting. Data are presented as mean ± SEM of one representative experiment (averages of triplicate wells). (D) p53-null cells infected with a control vector or a vector encoding SLC1A3 were fed complete medium or glutamine-deficient medium for 2 days in the presence of [U-13C]aspartate for the final 16 hr. LC-MS was used for stable isotopomer tracing of TCA-cycle intermediates. Data are presented as mean ± SEM of one representative experiment (averages of triplicate wells). (E) Analysis of glutamate and glutamine levels in cells treated as in (D). Data are presented as mean ± SEM of one representative experiment (averages of triplicate wells). (F) p53-null cells infected with a control vector or a vector encoding SLC1A3 were cultured for 3 days in complete medium in the presence of the glutaminase inhibitor CB-839 (0.1 μM, 0.5 μM, or 1 μM). The graph shows the percentage of growth compared with the untreated condition (DMSO). Data are presented as mean ± SEM from three independent experiments (∗p < 0.05, ∗∗p < 0.01, paired two-tailed Student’s t test).CC BY · PubMed Central

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Authors
Tajan, M., Hock, A. K., Blagih, J., Robertson, N. A., Labuschagne, C. F., Kruiswijk, F., Humpton, T. J., Adams, P. D., & Vousden, K. H.
Affiliations
  • The Francis Crick Institute (GB)
  • Cancer Research UK Scotland Institute (GB)
  • University of Glasgow (GB)
  • Sanford Burnham Prebys Medical Discovery Institute (US)
Corresponding author
Vousden, Karen H.
ORCID
Venue
Cell Metabolism
Publisher
Elsevier BV
Published
2018-11
Volume
28
Issue
5
Pages
721-736.e6
ISSN
1550-4131 (ISSN-L)
DOI
10.1016/j.cmet.2018.07.005
PMC
PMC6224545
OpenAlex
W2885597648
Cited by
230
References
49
Citations by year
2026: 19 · 2025: 21 · 2024: 31 · 2023: 29 · 2022: 40 · 2021: 26 · 2020: 35 · 2019: 24 · 2018: 4
FWCI
6.73
Type
journal article
Language
en
Open access
Licence
Locations
  • Cell Metabolism (publishedVersion, cc-by)
  • Europe PMC (PubMed Central) (publishedVersion, cc-by)
  • PubMed Central (publishedVersion, cc-by)
  • PubMed (publishedVersion)
  • Figshare (submittedVersion, cc-by)
Funders
  • Wellcome Trust
  • Cancer Research UK (C10652/A16566, C596/A10419, C596/A26855, WO/2017/144877)
  • Medical Research Council
  • Francis Crick Institute
  • Astex Pharmaceuticals
  • European Research Council (322842-METABOp53)
Topics
  • Life Sciences › Biochemistry, Genetics and Molecular Biology › Cancer Research › Cancer, Hypoxia, and Metabolism
  • Life Sciences › Biochemistry, Genetics and Molecular Biology › Biochemistry › Amino Acid Enzymes and Metabolism
  • Life Sciences › Biochemistry, Genetics and Molecular Biology › Molecular Biology › Metabolism, Diabetes, and Cancer
Keywords
p53, GLAST, glutamine starvation, glutamate synthesis, nucleotide synthesis, electron transport chain, TCA cycle, metabolic stress, tumor cell survival, cancer therapy
MeSH terms
Adaptation, Physiological, Animals, Cell Survival, Citric Acid Cycle, Female, Glutamine, Humans, Mice, Inbred BALB C, Neoplasms, Starvation, Tumor Suppressor Protein p53, Excitatory Amino Acid Transporter 1, Cell Line, Tumor

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