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The future of mindfulness training is digital, and the future is now
Abstract
Digital mindfulness-based interventions (d-MBIs) present a promising path for the scalable dissemination of mindfulness instruction in the 21st century. Smartphone applications and web-based platforms can offer potential advantages over traditional face-to-face formats through enhanced accessibility, standardization, personalization, and efficacy of mindfulness training. A growing body of research has documented that a digital approach to teaching mindfulness can improve measures of attention, stress, depression, and anxiety. However, effective digital mindfulness instruction must overcome a variety of challenges, including the possibility of low engagement, shallow learning, and unaddressed obstacles or frustrations. Fortunately, best practices from multiple fields of research provide strategies to overcome these challenges.
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“Limitations of online interventions are relatively high dropout rates and more difficulty engaging participants compared to an in‐person intervention (Mrazek et al., 2019).”
From Mindfulness-based cognitive therapy for chronic noncancer pain and prescription opioid use disorder: A qualitative pilot study of its feasibility and the perceived process of change (2023) · cites this paper as Mrazek et al., 2019
In the citing paper
“Past research has suggested that there is a range of factors that influence adherence to digital MBIs [5], including accessibility (eg, across devices and populations with different needs), tailoring (eg, of content to individual needs), and difficulty (eg, sustaining attention).”
From Experiences of Using Digital Mindfulness-Based Interventions: Rapid Scoping Review and Thematic Synthesis (2023) · cites this paper as [5]
In the citing paper
“Despite such efficacy, there are numerous challenges in accessing and delivering MBIs, including geographical, logistical, and financial constraints as well as a lack of trained mindfulness teachers [5,6].”
From Experiences of Using Digital Mindfulness-Based Interventions: Rapid Scoping Review and Thematic Synthesis (2023) · cites this paper as [5]
In the citing paper
“In order to overcome the possible challenges of a digital MBI we applied some of the best recommended practices in digital learning suggested by Mrazek et al. (2019).”
From Feasibility of a Brief Online Mindfulness and Compassion-Based Intervention to Promote Mental Health Among University Students During the COVID-19 Pandemic (2021) · cites this paper as Mrazek et al., 2019
In the citing paper
“While this modality of MBI faces numerous challenges, they can be overcome as long as it is applied through some of the best practices in digital learning (Mrazek et al., 2019), like those considered in the current study.”
From Feasibility of a Brief Online Mindfulness and Compassion-Based Intervention to Promote Mental Health Among University Students During the COVID-19 Pandemic (2021) · cites this paper as Mrazek et al., 2019
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Yaralı, S., Cengiz, M., & Kılıç, D. (2025) · Psychology Health & Medicine · doi:10.1080/13548506.2025.2552963 · Cited by 3
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“A growing number of studies have shown that digital mindfulness-based interventions (d-MBIs) can improve attention, and decrease stress, depression, and anxiety (e.g., Mrazek et al., 2018).”
Digital Attention Training: Improving the Mental Health and Well-Being of Adolescent Youth
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“While training attention represents a promising approach for improving the well-being of adolescents, as described above, only a small fraction of high school students effective training to millions of high school students (Mrazek et al., 2019a).”
InfluentialSelf-citationJimenez, R., Zuniga‐Hernandez, M., Suen, M. Y., Feng, R., Pinedo, K., Arshad, F., Collins, F., Ganesan, A., Jackson, C., Wang, E., et al. (2025) · Journal of Patient Experience · doi:10.1177/23743735251326671 · Cited by 3
“20,21 Virtual reality (VR) is a promising anxiolytic technology with increasing clinical adoption due to its ability to immerse patients in completely novel, peaceful environments.”
On the usability of digital sleep interventions in sports
Klier, K., Seiler, K., & Wagner, M. O. (2021) · German Journal of Exercise and Sport Research · doi:10.1007/s12662-021-00771-1 · Cited by 5
Ran, M. O., Jiandong, F. A. N. G., & CHANG, B. (2023) · Advances in Psychological Science · doi:10.3724/sp.j.1042.2023.01742 · Cited by 4
“随着移动互联网的快速发展，基于传统心理咨询/心理治疗技术但更灵活、 经济、便捷的在线自助干预(Internet-based Self-help Interventions, ISIs) 也应运而生(Mrazek et al., 2019)。近年来，ISIs 的可行、有效性得到了较多 证据支持(Izzaty et al., 2021; Johansson et al., 2021; Sun et al., 2021; Taylor et al., 2021; Weisel et al., 2019)，但用户的高脱落率及低参与度 仍 是 ISIs 当 下 要 面 临 的 巨 大 挑 战…”
Franco-Carrero, J. A., Domínguez-Padilla, M., & Fernández, J. M. D. (2023) · Medicina y Seguridad del Trabajo · doi:10.4321/s0465-546x2023000100006 · Cited by 4
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Godinho, A., Dalmia, S., Phadke, S., Lalani, Y., Wach, A. C., Rana, P., & Wegier, P. (2025) · Mindfulness · doi:10.1007/s12671-025-02614-8 · Cited by 3
“However, they also pre-sent unique challenges such as maintaining engagement, fostering social connection, ensuring depth of practice, and technological barriers (e.g., stable internet, digital literacy) (Mrazek et al., 2019).”
Zheng, Y., Dou, Z., Guo, T., Wang, Y., & Zeng, X. (2025) · Mindfulness · doi:10.1007/s12671-025-02548-1 · Cited by 2
“There is a growing trend toward delivering MBIs via digital platforms such as websites and smartphone apps (Mrazek et al., 2019).”
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Xiong, W., Xia, Y., Yu, L., & Yang, F. (2025) · Frontiers in Psychiatry · doi:10.3389/fpsyt.2025.1644370 · Cited by 4
“Compared to traditional face-to-face formats, smartphone apps and web-based platforms have greater advantages in enhancing the accessibility, standardization, degree of personalization, and effectiveness of mindfulness training (14).”
Osborne, E. L., Ainsworth, B., Hooper, N., Chadwick, P., & Atkinson, M. J. (2025) · International Journal of Eating Disorders · doi:10.1002/eat.24546 · Cited by 2
Catling, J. C., Williams, S. E., Zanten, J. V., & Crisp, A. (2025) · Mental Illness · doi:10.1155/mij/6166781 · Cited by 2
“Compared to face-to-face programs, online and app-based interventions o ff er greater accessibility and fl exibility: students can engage in exercises at their own pace, on their own schedule, and in the comfort of their chosen environment [9].”
Salahshoor, S., & Renbarger, K. M. (2025) · Journal of Pediatric Nursing · doi:10.1016/j.pedn.2025.11.016 · Cited by 3
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“…effects post skill practice on affect and suicidal thoughts delivered via EMI, nor have any examined these immediate effects within populations at elevated risk for suicidal thoughts and behaviors (Mrazek et al., 2019; Pavlacic et al., 2022; Pavlacic et al., 2025; Schmelefske et al., 2022).”
Chen, Z., Bai, J., Hu, Y., Zhou, B., & Wang, Y. (2026) · Journal of Psychiatric Research · doi:10.1016/j.jpsychires.2026.02.014 · Cited by 3
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“According to this, digital mindfulness-based interventions (d-MBIs) and mindfulness-based mobile applications (MBMAs) are already receiving increased interest in society, or rather inevitable for the future (Mrazek et al., 2019).”
Tschenett, H., Funk, G., Vafai-Tabrizi, F., & Nater, U. M. (2024) · Mindfulness · doi:10.1007/s12671-024-02387-6 · Cited by 3
“…MBIs are increasingly implemented in different healthy and clinical populations and have been shown to effectively reduce psychological outcomes (Mrazek et al., 2019; Tan et al., 2022), only half of the patients in the present study would be interested in digital MBIs, and most of these stated…”
Lee, S. I., Yoon, S. I., Song, G.-J., Park, H. Y., Chung, S.-Y., & Kim, J. W. (2025) · Frontiers in Public Health · doi:10.3389/fpubh.2024.1440824 · Cited by 5
Osborne, E. L., Ainsworth, B., Hooper, N., Chadwick, P., & Atkinson, M. J. (2025) · Body Image · doi:10.1016/j.bodyim.2025.101925 · Cited by 2
“Research suggests that a range of factors influence engagement with digital MBIs, including difficulty grasping core concepts, uncertainty about practicing correctly, and misinterpreting the intervention ’ s purpose (Mrazek et al., 2019; Osborne et al., 2023).”
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An Overview of Mindfulness and Its Implications for Children and Adolescents
Venkatesan, S. (2021) · Advances in psychology, mental health, and behavioral studies (APMHBS) book series · doi:10.4018/978-1-7998-8682-2.ch002 · Cited by 2
Meditation, Mindfulness, and Mental Health
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A Comparative Review of Research on Mindfulness in Pre/Post Covid-19 Education
Fu, F., Haratyan, F., & Yanling, Z. (2023) · British Journal of Education · doi:10.37745/10.37745/bje.2013/vol11n3124 · Cited by 1
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“15 Although some people prefer face-to-face training, results have shown that online interventions have advantages, including more accessibility and to some extent solving the challenges of time, distance and cost, especially for busy people and people having problem in accessibility.”
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“Headspace is the highest rated and most popular application for practicing meditation on a mobile device (Mani et al., 2015; Mrazek et al., 2019; O ’ Daffer et al., 2022) and has demonstrated positive bene fi ts for mental health in numerous mindfulness meditation intervention studies (Bennike et…”
Rudnicki, K., Schepers, L., Rummens, K., Joris, G., & Poels, K. (2025) · Applied Psychophysiology and Biofeedback · doi:10.1007/s10484-025-09728-8 · Cited by 1
“…availability and sophistication of digital interventions is expected to increase the scale at which such practices can be employed (Cavanagh & Millings, 2013 ; Mrazek et al., 2019 ; Muñoz, 2016), and initial evidence for meditation applications supports their continuing development and evaluation.”
Zohar, S., Yuval, K., Gebremariam, S. G., Goldberg, S. B., Aviad, N., Baldwin, S. A., & Bernstein, A. (2025) · Mindfulness · doi:10.1007/s12671-025-02675-9 · Cited by 1
“…and mindfulness-informed BITs and mHealth technologies are well-suited to expand access, reach, scalability, feasibility, flexibility, and potential cost-effectiveness of such interventions (Gal et al., 2021; Goldberg et al., 2022a; Linardon, 2020; Mrazek et al., 2019; Tan et al., 2022).”
Mindfulness and meditation: Promoting emotional and cognitive health
Sirimanne, N., Dahiya, N., Papazian, G., Nazeer, N., Tasmiya, & Elemam, B. (2025) · Progress in brain research · doi:10.1016/bs.pbr.2025.08.015 · Cited by 1
Cohen, L., Suberry, A., Sun, P. C., Ulitsa, N., Roy, S., & Ayalon, L. (2025) · Sage Open Aging · doi:10.1177/30495334251406040 · Cited by 1
“…also offers structural advantages: it eases attentional demands typically required during mindfulness practice, supports shorter interventions, and allows sessions to be repeated anytime, improving accessibility and standardization (Chandrasiri et al., 2020; Lutz et al., 2008; Mrazek et al., 2019).”
Haberlin, S., Broussard, A., & Owens, S. (2025) · Mindfulness · doi:10.1007/s12671-025-02732-3 · Cited by 1
Lindsay, E. K., Damon, S., Low, C. A., & Marsland, A. L. (2025) · Behavior Therapy · doi:10.1016/j.beth.2025.08.004 · Cited by 1
“In contrast, acceptance is a key mechanism of MBIs for improving mental health symptoms (Janusek et al., 2021) and stress biology (Lindsay, Young, et al., 2018).”
InfluentialMoqbel, M., Frimpong, B., & Zhang, L. (2026) · Information Systems Frontiers · doi:10.1007/s10796-025-10673-4 · Cited by 2
“Future research directions could explore the development and implementation of mindfulness training programs or investigate the effectiveness of digital detox initiatives in fostering innovative behavior (Mrazek et al., 2019; Schubin et al., 2023).”
Tschenett, H., Dreisoerner, A., Schäfer, K., Mewes, R., & Nater, U. M. (2026) · Internet Interventions · doi:10.1016/j.invent.2025.100901 · Cited by 1
“Individually customizable interventions can be effectively implemented using a digital format, which offers various advantages such as easy and low-threshold access, low cost, and easy integration into everyday life (Mrazek et al., 2019).”
Sasaki, N., Inoue, A., Iida, M., Watanabe, K., Kobayashi, Y., Sakuraya, A., Eguchi, H., Tsuno, K., Komase, Y., Otsuka, Y., et al. (2026) · JMIR mhealth and uhealth · doi:10.2196/74272 · Cited by 1
“Digital mindfulness interventions can overcome the barriers of logistics and time availability by providing flexible access and standardized content at a low cost [16].”
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“Recently, digital mindfulness applications (MAs) have become increasingly popular as they allow users to flexibly attend mindfulness practice sessions on their own schedule at low costs (Mrazek et al., 2019).”
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“…adaptability to an online format, which has the advantage of broader accessibility and affordability, as is the case for other MBIs delivered online (Spijkerman et al., 2016; Jayawardene et al., 2017; Sommers-Spijkerman et al., 2021; Mrazek et al., 2019; Gravesande et al., 2023; Teo et al., 2024).”
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Stańko-Kaczmarek, M., Jankowski, T., Koczyk, A., Krzyżaniak, W. L., Meder, K., & Dulian, K. (2023) · Mindfulness · doi:10.1007/s12671-023-02264-8
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“…and meta-analysis of 13 randomized controlled trials (N = 1373 women) evaluating the efficacy of digital-based mindfulness interventions for pregnant women found digital-based mindfulness to significantly reduce anxiety and depressive symptoms, but not symptoms of stress (Mrazek et al., 2019).”
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“Meticulously designed d-MBIs can yield treatment effects equivalent to or even better than offline mindfulness interventions (Mrazek et al., 2019).”
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“Compared to in-person treatments, online interventions can be accessed from any location, are often affordable, and can be accessed more privately (Mrazek et al., 2019).”
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“I am referring to the growing importance of digital devices and AIDMTs in daily meditative practice (Zhu et al., 2017; Tiersen & Calvo, 2021; Berthon & Pitt, 2019; Mrazek et al., 2019).”
Nathanson, E. W., Rispoli, K. M., & Ramazon, N. H. (2025) · Journal of Child and Family Studies · doi:10.1007/s10826-025-03210-z
“…established in two meta-analyses (Jayawardene et al., 2016 ; Spijkerman et al., 2016 ), and emerging literature suggests that online-delivered MBSR delivers enhanced outcomes, capability for personalization, and accessibility when compared to programs delivered in person (Mrazek et al., 2019 ).”
You, J., Khan, Z., Swaroop, R., Sun, Y., Velayudhan, L., & Aarsland, D. (2025) · PLoS ONE · doi:10.1371/journal.pone.0336583
Jakupov, M., Жартаевна, А. А., Сарбасова, Г. Ж., Baimoldina, L., & Fedorovich, O. (2025) · The Educational and Developmental Psychologist · doi:10.1080/20590776.2025.2597747
“This practice has been incorporated into various therapeutic modalities, including mindfulness-based stress reduction (MBSR) and mindfulness-based cognitive therapy (MBCT) (Mrazek et al., 2019; Roeser et al., 2022).”
Galluzzi, S., Lanfredi, M., Moretti, D. V., Rossi, R., Meloni, S., Tomasoni, E., Frisoni, G. B., Chiesa, A., & Pievani, M. (2024) · Figshare · doi:10.6084/m9.figshare.25217338
Galluzzi, S., Lanfredi, M., Moretti, D. V., Rossi, R., Meloni, S., Tomasoni, E., Frisoni, G. B., Chiesa, A., & Pievani, M. (2024) · Figshare · doi:10.6084/m9.figshare.25216797
Dinesh, T. K., Shetty, A., & Kini, R. S. (2025) · Economic Research-Ekonomska Istraživanja · doi:10.32728/er-ei.38.2.3 · Cited by 1
Balasundaram, E., Navalgund, N. R., Aranganathan, P., Hanji, S. V., & Shashidhar, M. (2025) · Advances in mental health and addiction · doi:10.1007/978-3-031-98979-7_3
Mindfulness meets OTT: Development and validation of Mindful OTT Content Consumption Scale (MOCCS)
Chhabra, D., Naved, S., Ajji, S. K., Sachan, T., & kaur, G. (2026) · Computers in Human Behavior Reports · doi:10.1016/j.chbr.2026.100951 · Cited by 1
Rai, H., Bruel, D. M. M., Hood, P., Sabiston, C. M., Saab, B. J., & Farb, N. A. S. (2026) · Mindfulness · doi:10.1007/s12671-025-02750-1
“It also contributes to a growing body of literature suggesting that administering MT through digital mediums can significantly improve psychological outcomes (Goldstein et al., 2020; Mrazek et al., 2019).”
Mrazek, A. J., Texter, A. R., Jennings, J. K., Podell, J. R., Zapalac, K., Maul, A., Rutila, B. A., Trotter, A. N., Woodson, E. J., Zhu, Y., et al. (2026) · Frontiers in Education · doi:10.3389/feduc.2026.1660005
Self-citationBurić, I., Žderić, L., Bögels, S. M., & de Bruin, E. I. (2026) · Mindfulness · doi:10.1007/s12671-026-02779-w
AI-Supported Mindfulness Interventions
Hojeij, Z., & Bizzari, F. (2026) · Advances in computational intelligence and robotics book series · doi:10.4018/979-8-3373-4222-1.ch006
What predicts meditation app engagement? an evaluation of user characteristics and motivation
Sullivan, M., Cloonan, S., Huberty, J., & Stecher, C. D. (2026) · Psychology and Health · doi:10.1080/08870446.2026.2648854
Exploring the Impact of Sensory Conflict on State Mindfulness in VR Meditation Training
Chang, S., Luo, T., Wang, P., Sun, B., Tang, X., Chen, G., Gao, B., Wang, Q., Han, T., Fan, Y., et al. (2026) · CHI Conference on Human Factors in Computing Systems · doi:10.1145/3772318.3791394
“Through immersive visual, auditory, and interactive feedback, VR helps users focus and block real-world distractions, thus creating environments more conducive to achieve state mindfulness [25, 84].”
Li, Y., & Li, Q. (2026) · Mindfulness · doi:10.1007/s12671-026-02851-5
“Compared with in-person mind-fulness training, digital mindfulness training offers greater accessibility, standardization, personalization, and effectiveness (Mrazek et al., 2019).”
Jahani, S., Haberlin, S., Carter, W., & Bradshaw, T. (2026) · Journal of American College Health · doi:10.1080/07448481.2026.2667451
Wang, Z., Tong, H. Q., Yue, J., Wu, S., Xia, Y., Zhang, H., & Yang, Y. (2026) · Journal of Medical Internet Research · doi:10.2196/91751
“Internet-delivered self-guided interventions offer a promising solution for expanding access to stress management training [22,23].”
Li, L.-P., Fang, X.-X., Zhang, H.-M., Wang, J.-P., Wu, H.-Y., Li, Q., & Song, H. (2026) · iScience · doi:10.1016/j.isci.2026.116672
“31 Digital MBIs such as headspace and calm, 32 mindfulness-based music interventions, 33 and related studies 34,35 have broadened access, but real-time adaptability and deep therapeutic engagement remain limited.”
Liao, J., Wei, X., Fang, X., Sun, X., Li, F., & Lei, L. (2026) · Education and Information Technologies · doi:10.1007/s10639-026-14116-8
“On this basis, future educational interventions may purposefully develop “digital mindfulness” training modules (Mrazek et al., 2019) by embedding cognitive prompting techniques and real-time feedback mechanisms into AI-use contexts.”
Jing, S., Dai, Z., Yang, X., Xin, Y., Sun, R., Wu, J., Wang, Y., Disi, A., & Su, X. (2026) · Psycho-Oncology · doi:10.1002/pon.70610
Rayapuraju, A., Mohamed, E., Upadhyay, P., Orui, H., Pratt, M., Jafari, N., Chase, T., Ticotsky, A., Maley, J. H., & Subramaniam, B. (2025) · Journal of Medical Internet Research · doi:10.2196/89631
School-based digital mental health interventions: A scoping review
Santosh-Thomas, S., Aggarwal, A., Chandler, T., Dremann, S., Phillips, S., Lopez, E., Weist, M. D., & Daly, B. P. (2026) · Journal of Child and Adolescent Mental Health · doi:10.2989/17280583.2026.2721998
Theory-driven design and validation of a tool to enhance academic focus
Mrazek, M. D., Ransom, D. S., Texter, A. R., Tower, C. V., Rutila, B. A., Kennedy, T. F., Woodson, E. J., Schooler, J. W., & Mrazek, A. J. (2026) · Educational Technology Research and Development · doi:10.1007/s11423-026-10730-y
Self-citationCombining Behavior Change Strategies to Develop Meditation App Habits: A Randomized Controlled Trial
Stecher, C. D., Cloonan, S., Huberty, J., Hanley, A. W., Lecy, N., & Berardi, V. (2026) · Mindfulness · doi:10.1007/s12671-026-03001-7
Firdaus, D., Rochimah, H., & Armiati, R. (2026) · F1000Research · doi:10.12688/f1000research.191569.1
Metadata
- Authors
- Mrazek, A. J., Mrazek, M. D., Cherolini, C. M., Cloughesy, J. N., Cynman, D. J., Gougis, L. J., Landry, A. P., Reese, J. V., & Schooler, J. W.
- Affiliations
- University of California, Santa Barbara (US)
- Corresponding author
- Mrazek, Alissa J
- Mrazek, Michael D
- Venue
- Current Opinion in Psychology
- Publisher
- Elsevier BV
- Published
- 2019-08
- Volume
- 28
- Pages
- 81-86
- ISSN
- 2352-250X (ISSN-L)
- OpenAlex
- W2914263353
- Cited by
- 201
- References
- 54
- Citations by year
- 2026: 23 · 2025: 41 · 2024: 32 · 2023: 38 · 2022: 25 · 2021: 24 · 2020: 15 · 2019: 3
- FWCI
- 1.77
- Type
- journal article
- Language
- en
- Open access
- closed
- Locations
- Current Opinion in Psychology (publishedVersion)
- PubMed (publishedVersion)
- Funders
- U.S. Department of Education’s Institute of Education Sciences (R305A170445)
- Topics
- Social Sciences › Psychology › Clinical Psychology › Mindfulness and Compassion Interventions
- Social Sciences › Psychology › Applied Psychology › Digital Mental Health Interventions
- Health Sciences › Health Professions › General Health Professions › Mobile Health and mHealth Applications
- Keywords
- mindfulness training, mobile application, web platform, user engagement, personalization, attention, stress, depression, anxiety
- MeSH terms
- Forecasting, Humans, Learning, Social Behavior, Telemedicine, Mindfulness
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