Feasibility of a Brief Online Mindfulness and Compassion-Based Intervention to Promote Mental Health Among University Students During the COVID-19 Pandemic

The quote only partly states this claim.

The intervention was feasible across all five evaluated domains (acceptability, satisfaction, implementation, practicality, and limited efficacy).

“The intervention showed to be feasible in all domains evaluated.”

Probably not a substantial claim: may not pass S3 (load-bearing).

The PSS-10 had very high internal consistency before the intervention and after the intervention.

“The Scale Reliability Analysis for PSS-10 shows a Cronbach’s α =0.8851 in the pre-intervention scores and a Cronbach’s α =0.9061 in the pos-tintervention scores.”

The quote only partly states this claim.

All five satisfaction items scored significantly above the scale midpoint of 5.50.

“Items results were tested against the middle of the scale (5.50). In all five cases, highly significant results were noticed.”

• AssumptionRests on an assumption: Self-reported satisfaction and expected benefits are valid indicators of acceptability.

Probably not a substantial claim: may not pass S3 (load-bearing).

The majority of the 66 valid participants were women (86.36%).

“Those 66 valid participants were of typical age for first-year university students (mean age 19.83, SD 1.49, range 18–25 with two missing values), and the majority were women (86.36%).”

May combine two claims.

When asked whether they found the program useful, 87.87% answered yes, 10.61% answered maybe, and 1.51% answered no.

“Also, when asked “Have you found the program useful?” 87.87 % answered yes, 10.61% answered maybe, and 1.51 % answered no.”

• AssumptionRests on an assumption: Self-reported satisfaction and expected benefits are valid indicators of acceptability.

Probably not a substantial claim: may not pass S3 (load-bearing).

The SCS had very high internal consistency before the intervention and after the intervention.

“The Scale Reliability Analysis for SCS shows a Cronbach’s α =0.8156 in the pre-intervention scores and a Cronbach’s α =0.8254 in the post-intervention scores.”

Probably not a substantial claim: may not pass S3 (load-bearing).

The 66 valid participants had a mean age of 19.83 years (SD 1.49, range 18-25).

“Those 66 valid participants were of typical age for first-year university students (mean age 19.83, SD 1.49, range 18–25 with two missing values), and the majority were women (86.36%).”

Probably not a substantial claim: may not pass S3 (load-bearing).

All participants were Caucasian except two who were Latino.

“All participants were Caucasian except for two that were Latino.”

Probably not a substantial claim: may not pass S3 (load-bearing).

98.68% of participants had no prior experience in mindfulness meditation.

“In total, 98.68% of the participants had no prior experience in mindfulness meditation.”

Probably not a substantial claim: may not pass S3 (load-bearing).

Self-criticism was reported by 56.58% of participants.

“the most frequently referred difficulties were those related to mind-wandering and concentration (85.71%), insecurity about their performance in the practice of mindfulness (72.37%), and self-criticism (56.58%).”

Probably not a substantial claim: may not pass S3 (load-bearing).

The STAI had very high internal consistency before the intervention and after the intervention.

“The Scale Reliability Analysis for STAI shows a Cronbach's α =0.9010 in the pre-intervention scores and a Cronbach’s α =0.8996 in the post-intervention scores.”

Probably not a substantial claim: may not pass S3 (load-bearing).

At the start of the study, participants had been confined at home for almost two months.

“At the time of the initiation of this study, participants had been confined in their homes for almost 2 months.”

May combine two claims.

Self-compassion levels increased from 17.20 to 19.20 after the intervention, with a mean difference of -2.00, p < 0.001, and Hedges's g of 0.70.

“Self-compassion levels were augmented from 17.20 to 19.20 (mean difference=-2.00, p<0.001, Hedges’s g=0.70).”

• AssumptionRests on an assumption: The pre-post changes in stress, anxiety, and self-compassion are attributable to the intervention rather than to other factors.

May combine two claims.

After dropping four responses due to code mismatch, the actual retention rate was 86.84%, with 66 valid responses from 76 participants.

“However, 4 responses were dropped due to code mismatch. Therefore, the actual retention rate of the study was 86.84% (66 valid responses from 76 participants).”

May combine two claims.

Mean trait anxiety levels decreased from 31.62 to 26.79 after the intervention, with a mean difference of 4.83, p < 0.001, and Hedges's g of 0.61.

“Mean trait anxiety levels were reduced from 31.62 to 26.79 (mean difference=4.83, p<0.001, Hedges’s g=0.61).”

• AssumptionRests on an assumption: The pre-post changes in stress, anxiety, and self-compassion are attributable to the intervention rather than to other factors.

Classified as probably not a substantial claim.

The intervention was delivered by a professor whom participants already knew from a prior face-to-face course on the psychology of motivation.

“In this respect, the intervention in the current study was delivered by a professor already known to the participants from a previously completed face-to-face course on the psychology of motivation.”

May combine two claims.

Mean stress levels decreased from 23.30 to 19.73 after the intervention, with a mean difference of 3.57, p < 0.001, and Hedges's g of 0.51.

“Mean stress levels were reduced from 23.30 to 19.73 (mean difference=3.57, p<0.001, Hedges’s g=0.51).”

• AssumptionRests on an assumption: The pre-post changes in stress, anxiety, and self-compassion are attributable to the intervention rather than to other factors.

May combine two claims.

The post-intervention test was completed by 70 students, a retention rate of 92.11%.

“The post-intervention test was completed by 70 students (retention rate of 92.11%).”

May combine two claims.

Home assignment delivery was 96.97% for modules 1 and 2, 92.42% for module 3, and 95.54% for module 4.

“96.97% of the participants delivered their home assignment for modules 1 and 2, 92.42% for module 3, and 95.54% for module 4.”

May combine two claims.

The present study had an adherence rate of 93% and a medium effect size on mental health.

“The present study had an adherence rate of 93% and a medium effect size on mental health.”

May combine two claims.

Strict confinement and the threat of rising infections led to great psychological suffering and significant adverse mental health consequences, especially in vulnerable groups such as university students.

“This strict confinement, together with the threat derived from the rising number of infections, led to great psychological suffering and significant adverse consequences for mental health (Brooks et al., 2020; González-Sanguino et al., 2020), especially in vulnerable groups such as university students (Araújo et al., 2020; Kaparounaki et al., 2020; Odriozola-González et al., 2020).”

• cites Brooks et al., 2020 sourceNot checked yet

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• cites González-Sanguino et al., 2020 sourceNot checked yet

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• cites Araújo et al., 2020 sourceNot checked yet

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Probably not a substantial claim: may not pass S3 (load-bearing).

Mental health problems have been increasing among university students in recent years.

“mental health problems have already been on the rise among university students in recent years (Auerbach et al., 2016; Bruffaerts et al., 2018; Storrie et al., 2010).”

• cites Auerbach et al., 2016 sourceNot checked yet

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• cites Bruffaerts et al., 2018 sourceNot checked yet

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• cites Storrie et al., 2010 sourceNot checked yet

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Probably not a substantial claim: may not pass S3 (load-bearing). May combine two claims.

Both the COVID-19 outbreak and the ensuing preventative measures have had a deep impact on mental health worldwide.

“Both the outbreak itself and the ensuing preventative measures have had a deep impact on the mental health of thousands of millions of people all over the world (Luykx et al., 2020; Otu et al., 2020; Shigemura et al., 2020; Wang et al., 2020).”

• cites Luykx et al., 2020Not checked yet

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• cites Otu et al., 2020 sourceNot checked yet

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• cites Shigemura et al., 2020 sourceNot checked yet

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The STAI has been validated in Spain and has adequate psychometric properties and reliability.

“The scale has been validated in Spain and shows adequate psychometric properties and has adequate reliability (internal consistency, Cronbach’s alpha = 0.84 - 0.87) (Spielberger et al., 2001).”

• cites Spielberger et al., 2001Not checked yet

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The short form of the Self-Compassion Scale has been validated in Spain and has adequate psychometric properties and reliability.

“The scale has been validated in Spain and shows adequate psychometric properties and has adequate reliability (internal consistency, and test–retest coefficient of 0.89 (95% CI: 0.87–0.93) (Garcia-Campayo et al., 2014).”

• cites Garcia-Campayo et al., 2014Not checked yet

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Probably not a substantial claim: may not pass S3 (load-bearing).

Stress may have a deleterious effect on the immune system, including increased susceptibility to viral upper respiratory infections.

“Furthermore, stress may have a deleterious effect on the immune system (Cohen et al., 2007), such as increased susceptibility to viral upper respiratory infections (Pedersen et al., 2010), which is a particular concern as regards COVID-19.”

• cites Cohen et al., 2007 sourceNot checked yet

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• cites Pedersen et al., 2010 sourceNot checked yet

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May combine two claims.

Self-compassion may promote mental health by reducing psychological stress and facilitating adaptive emotion regulation.

“Interestingly, some studies have shown self-compassion may promote mental health by reducing psychological stress (Luo et al., 2019) and facilitating adaptive emotion regulation (Inwood & Ferrari, 2018).”

• cites Luo et al., 2019 sourceNot checked yet

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• cites Inwood & Ferrari, 2018Not checked yet

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MBIs have been shown effective for reducing stress of the college transition and fostering adjustment of first-year university students.

“Furthermore, MBIs have also been shown effective for reducing the stress of the college transition and fostering the adjustment of first-year university students (Ramler et al., 2016).”

• cites Ramler et al., 2016 sourceNot checked yet

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There is compelling evidence that MBIs reduce stress and promote mental health in general and clinical populations.

“There is compelling evidence on the effectiveness of MBIs in reducing stress and promoting mental health both in the general population and in a wide range of clinical populations (Chiesa & Serretti, 2011; Goldberg et al., 2021; Khoury et al., 2015).”

• cites Chiesa & Serretti, 2011 sourceNot checked yet

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• cites Goldberg et al., 2021Not checked yet

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• cites Khoury et al., 2015 sourceNot checked yet

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Self-compassion meditation practice was associated with better cohabitation during the Spanish lockdown.

“Even more, a recent study found that self-compassion meditation practice was associated with better cohabitation during the Spanish lockdown (Jiménez et al., 2020).”

• cites Jiménez et al., 2020 sourceNot checked yet

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May combine two claims.

The Spanish PSS-10 has adequate reliability, concurrent validity, and sensitivity.

“The Spanish version of the PSS-10 has adequate reliability (internal consistency, Cronbach’s alpha= 0.82, and test–retest, r = 0.77), concurrent validity, and sensitivity (Remor, 2006).”

• cites Remor, 2006 sourceNot checked yet

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Probably not a substantial claim: may not pass S3 (load-bearing). May combine two claims.

Students who agreed to participate signed an informed consent form specifying study objectives and guaranteeing anonymity and confidentiality.

“The students who agreed to participate (N=76) signed an informed consent form that specified the study’s objectives and guaranteed the anonymity and confidentiality of the data.”

Probably not a substantial claim: may not pass S3 (load-bearing).

The study applied recommended practices in digital learning to overcome possible challenges of a digital MBI.

“In order to overcome the possible challenges of a digital MBI we applied some of the best recommended practices in digital learning suggested by Mrazek et al. (2019).”

• cites Mrazek et al., 2019 sourceNot checked yet

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Probably not a substantial claim: may not pass S3 (load-bearing).

All procedures and measures were approved by the University's Ethics Committee.

“All procedures and measures for the intervention were approved by the University’s Ethics Committee.”

May combine two claims.

Previous studies found that online MBIs in university students could reduce perceived stress, anxiety, and depression.

“In relation to online MBIs in university students, some previous studies have found that this kind of training could reduce perceived stress (Cavanagh & Millings, 2013), as well as anxiety and depression (El Morr et al., 2020).”

• cites Cavanagh & Millings, 2013 sourceNot checked yet

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• cites El Morr et al., 2020Not checked yet

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Various studies have drawn attention to the need to implement specific interventions with vulnerable populations to prevent detrimental effects on their mental health.

“Hence, various studies have drawn attention to the need to implement specific interventions with these vulnerable populations, as a way of preventing detrimental effects on their mental health (Kaparounaki et al., 2020; Luykx et al., 2020).”

• cites Kaparounaki et al., 2020 sourceNot checked yet

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• cites Luykx et al., 2020Not checked yet

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Research shows second-generation MBIs may promote mental health, social connection, and prosocial behavior.

“Research has shown that this second generation of MBIs may promote mental health, social connection, and prosocial behavior (Kirby et al., 2017; Shonin et al., 2015, 2017).”

• cites Kirby et al., 2017 sourceNot checked yet

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• cites Shonin et al., 2015, 2017Not matched

  Couldn’t be matched to a paper in Crossref, so it can’t be checked.

Classified as probably not a substantial claim. May combine two claims.

A total of 66 responses were matched and considered valid; four responses were dropped due to code mismatch.

“A total of 66 responses were matched and were considered valid. The other four responses were dropped due to code mismatch.”

Probably not a substantial claim: may not pass S3 (load-bearing). May combine two claims.

The high retention and participation rates could be due to intervention features, lockdown effects, and sample characteristics.

“The high retention and participation rates of this study could be due to some intervention features, lockdown effects, and sample characteristics.”

Probably not a substantial claim: may not pass S3 (load-bearing).

During the COVID-19 crisis, the spread of misinformation, fake news, and alarming images on social media could amplify fear, anxiety, stress, and worry.

“Indeed, during the COVID-19 crisis there has been a spread of misinformation, fake news, and alarming images in social media, which could amplify fear, anxiety, stress, and worry (Ozamiz-Etxebarria et al., 2020; Zhao & Zhou, 2020).”

• cites Ozamiz-Etxebarria et al., 2020Not checked yet

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• cites Zhao & Zhou, 2020Not checked yet

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As lockdown time progressed, psychological symptoms worsened.

“As other studies have shown, as the time spent in lockdown progressed, psychological symptoms got worse (Ozamiz-Etxebarria et al., 2020).”

• cites Ozamiz-Etxebarria et al., 2020Not checked yet

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Common and relational factors embedded in e-mental health technologies may account for some variance in engagement and outcomes.

“Some of the variance in engagement and outcomes of E-mental health interventions may be accounted for by the common and relational factors embedded within the technologies themselves (Cavanagh & Millings, 2013).”

• cites Cavanagh & Millings, 2013 sourceNot checked yet

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Probably not a substantial claim: may not pass S2 (checkable).

Providing individuals with resources to cope effectively with stressors could prevent the onset of psychological stress.

“The most significant implication of this definition is that by providing individuals with resources to effectively cope with stressors, the onset of psychological stress could be prevented.”

May combine two claims.

Online mindfulness-based interventions commonly have lower adherence rates, between 39.5% and 92%, and small effect sizes on mental health.

“Commonly, online MBIs have suffered lower intervention adherence rates, with rates varying between 39.5% and 92%, and small effect sizes on mental health (e.g., Centeno, 2020; Danilewitz et al., 2018; Finlay-Jones et al., 2017; Forbes et al., 2018; Spijkerman et al., 2016).”

• cites Centeno, 2020Not checked yet

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• cites Danilewitz et al., 2018Not checked yet

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• cites Finlay-Jones et al., 2017 sourceNot checked yet

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The deep psychological impact of lockdown on university students could be caused by stress from excessive social media consumption.

“The deep psychological impact that the lockdown has had on university students could be caused by stress triggered by excessive social media consumption (Hong et al., 2020; Zhao & Zhou, 2020).”

• cites Hong et al., 2020Not checked yet

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• cites Zhao & Zhou, 2020Not checked yet

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Probably not a substantial claim: may not pass S2 (checkable), S3 (load-bearing).

Psychological stress is widely viewed as an individual's interpretation that environmental demands exceed personal resources, endangering well-being.

“It is important to note that psychological stress is widely viewed as an individual's interpretation that the demands of the environment exceed their personal resources to deal with them, endangering their well-being (Lazarus & Folkman, 1984).”

• cites Lazarus & Folkman, 1984Not checked yet

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Digital mindfulness-based interventions represent a promising path for promoting mental health in a world in crisis.

“All in all, digital MBIs represent a promising path for promoting mental health in a world in crisis.”

Probably not a substantial claim: may not pass S3 (load-bearing).

Because of the exceptional lockdown setting, the present results cannot be compared with studies conducted before the pandemic.

“However, due to the exceptional setting of lockdown, the results of the present study cannot be compared to other studies conducted prior to the pandemic.”

Probably not a substantial claim: may not pass S3 (load-bearing).

Familiarity between students and the mindfulness instructor may account for the acceptability, participation, and retention results.

“The familiarity between students and the mindfulness instructor may account for the results on acceptability, participation, and retention rates.”

May combine two claims.

Significant mental health improvements were found, with medium effect sizes across all evaluated variables.

“Moreover, significant effects were found for mental health improvements, with medium effect sizes in all the variables evaluated.”

• AssumptionRests on an assumption: The pre-post changes in stress, anxiety, and self-compassion are attributable to the intervention rather than to other factors.

Probably not a substantial claim: may not pass S3 (load-bearing).

The high anxiety and stress levels found in university students during the COVID-19 lockdown are consistent with other studies in Spain and worldwide.

“Results from our study regarding the high levels of anxiety and stress in university students during the COVID-19 lockdown are in line with other studies carried out at the same time in the university population in Spain (Odriozola-González et al., 2020), as well as in other countries worldwide (Cao et al., 2020; Kaparounaki et al., 2020; Wang et al., 2020).”

• cites Odriozola-González et al., 2020 sourceNot checked yet

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• cites Cao et al., 2020 sourceNot checked yet

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• cites Kaparounaki et al., 2020 sourceNot checked yet

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May combine two claims.

The mindfulness-based intervention was feasible and participants found it useful.

“Overall, the results demonstrated that the MBI was feasible and that the participants found the intervention useful.”

• AssumptionRests on an assumption: The pre-post changes in stress, anxiety, and self-compassion are attributable to the intervention rather than to other factors.
• AssumptionRests on an assumption: Viewing time on the online platform accurately reflects participants' actual amount of mindfulness practice.
• AssumptionRests on an assumption: Self-reported satisfaction and expected benefits are valid indicators of acceptability.
• AssumptionRests on an assumption: The intervention was delivered as designed and with fidelity.

Classified as probably not a substantial claim. The quote only partly states this claim.

Normality of paired differences was checked and met for the stress, anxiety, and self-compassion analyses.

“In both cases, assumption of normality was checked and met (Shapiro–Wilk).”

• Also stated in: § Limited Efficacy Testing · plain

  “Normality assumption was checked and met (Shapiro-Wilk).”