Smoking-related prospective memory deficits in a real-world task
Abstract
Background Smokers, previous smokers and a never smoked group were compared on self-reported and real world prospective memory (PM - the cognitive ability of remembering to carry out particular actions at some future point in time).Methods Twenty-seven current smokers, 24 people who had never smoked and 18 previous smokers were compared using an existing groups design. Scores on the long and short term PM subscales of the Prospective and Retrospective Memory Questionnaire (PRMQ) and scores on a Real World Prospective Memory Task (RWPMT) constituted the dependent measures. Smoking and other drug use were assessed by a Recreational Drug Use Questionnaire. The Hospital Anxiety and Depression Scale gauged levels of anxiety and depression. The National Adult Reading Test measured IQ, and retrospective memory was measured using the PRMQ. Gender, age, anxiety and depression, IQ, alcohol use and the retrospective memory scores, were measured as covariates and controlled for in the analysis.Results A series of univariate ANCOVAs were applied to the main PM data across the three groups, controlling for variations in age, gender, mood, IQ, alcohol use and retrospective memory scores. These revealed no significant between-group differences on self-reported PM; however smokers recalled significantly fewer action-location combinations than the never smoked and previous smoker groups on the objective RWPMT.Conclusions Existing smokers showed reduced performance on RWPMT when compared to the never smoked group and previous smokers. Real-world PM impairments should be added to a growing list of neuropsychological sequelae associated with persistent smoking.
Integrity signals
Registry
Cites
Statistics
Claims the paper makes
Cites
The Hospital Anxiety and Depression Scale
Zigmond, A. S., & Snaith, R. P. (1983) · Acta Psychiatrica Scandinavica · doi:10.1111/j.1600-0447.1983.tb09716.x · Cited by 47,139 · see citing works
Prospective memory: Theory and applications
Mayes, A. R. (1997) · Neuropsychologia · doi:10.1016/s0028-3932(97)80257-6 · Cited by 915 · see citing works
Prospective Memory: An Overview and Synthesis of an Emerging Field
McDaniel, M. A., & Einstein, G. O. (2007) · Sage eBooks · doi:10.4135/9781452225913 · Cited by 715 · see citing works
Brandimonte, M. A., Einstein, G. O., & McDaniel, M. A. (2014) · Psychology Press eBooks · doi:10.4324/9781315806488 · Cited by 639 · see citing works
Prospective Memory : Cognitive, Neuroscience, Developmental, and Applied Perspectives
Kliegel, M., McDaniel, M. A., & Einstein, G. O. (2007) · Cited by 627 · see citing works
Brain regions involved in prospective memory as determined by positron emission tomography
Burgess, P. W., Quayle, A., & Frith, C. D. (2001) · Neuropsychologia · doi:10.1016/s0028-3932(00)00149-4 · Cited by 575 · see citing works
Crawford, J. R., Smith, G. N., Maylor, E. A., Sala, S. D., & Logie, R. H. (2003) · Memory · doi:10.1080/09658210244000027 · Cited by 465 · see citing works
Effects of smoking and smoking abstinence on cognition in adolescent tobacco smokers.
Jacobsen, L. K., Krystal, J. H., Mencl, W. E., Westerveld, M., Frost, S. J., & Pugh, K. R. (2005) · Biological Psychiatry · doi:10.1016/j.biopsych.2004.10.022 · Cited by 393 · see citing works
Differential components of prospective memory? Evidence from fMRI.
Simons, J., Schölvinck, M., Gilbert, S., Frith, C., & Burgess, P. (2006) · Neuropsychologia · doi:10.1016/j.neuropsychologia.2006.01.005 · Cited by 326 · see citing works
Cigarette Smoking and Alcohol Consumption in Relation to Cognitive Performance in Middle Age
Kalmijn, S. (2002) · American Journal of Epidemiology · doi:10.1093/aje/kwf135 · Cited by 281 · see citing works
Smoking History and Nicotine Effects on Cognitive Performance
Monique Ernst, D. (2001) · Neuropsychopharmacology · doi:10.1016/s0893-133x(01)00257-3 · Cited by 232 · see citing works
Prospective memory in 2000: Past, present, and future directions
Ellis, J., & Kvavilashvili, L. (2000) · Applied Cognitive Psychology · doi:10.1002/acp.767 · Cited by 229 · see citing works
Prospective memory in 2000: Past, present, and future directions
Ellis, J. A., & Kvavilashvili, L. (2000) · Applied Cognitive Psychology · doi:10.1002/acp.767.abs · Cited by 207 · see citing works
Cigarette Smoking and Cognitive Decline in Midlife: Evidence From a Prospective Birth Cohort Study
Richards, M., Jarvis, M. J., Thompson, N., & Wadsworth, M. E. J. (2003) · American Journal of Public Health · doi:10.2105/ajph.93.6.994 · Cited by 204 · see citing works
Ecstasy/MDMA attributed problems reported by novice, moderate and heavy recreational users
Parrott, A. C., Buchanan, T., Scholey, A. B., Heffernan, T., Ling, J., & Rodgers, J. (2002) · Human Psychopharmacology Clinical and Experimental · doi:10.1002/hup.415 · Cited by 161 · see citing works
Self-citationEffects of brain injury and age on prospective memory self-rating and performance.
Hannon, R., Adams, P. J., Harrington, S., Fries-Dias, C., & Gipson, M. T. (1995) · Rehabilitation Psychology · doi:10.1037/0090-5550.40.4.289 · Cited by 159 · see citing works
The burden of smoking-related ill health in the UK
Allender, S. E., Balakrishnan, R., Scarborough, P., Webster, P., & Rayner, M. (2009) · Tobacco Control · doi:10.1136/tc.2008.026294 · Cited by 149 · see citing works
Risk factors accelerating cerebral degenerative changes, cognitive decline and dementia
Meyer, J. S., Rauch, G. M., Crawford, K., Rauch, R. A., Konno, S., Akiyama, H., Terayama, Y., & Haque, A. (1999) · International Journal of Geriatric Psychiatry · doi:10.1002/(sici)1099-1166(199912)14:12 · Cited by 140 · see citing works
Smoking and cognitive decline among middle-aged men and women: the Doetinchem Cohort Study.
Nooyens, A. C. J., van Gelder, B. V., & Verschuren, W. M. M. (2008) · American Journal of Public Health · doi:10.2105/ajph.2007.130294 · Cited by 135 · see citing works
Smoking History and Cognitive Function in Middle Age From the Whitehall II Study
Sabia, S. (2008) · Archives of Internal Medicine · doi:10.1001/archinte.168.11.1165 · Cited by 128 · see citing works
Clinical Neuropsychology of Prospective Memory
Kliegel, M., McDaniel, M. A., & Einstein, G. O. (2007) · Psychology Press eBooks · doi:10.4324/9780203809945-21 · Cited by 118 · see citing works
Cigarette smoking and cognitive performance
Spilich, G. J., JUNE, L., & RENNER, J. (1992) · British Journal of Addiction · doi:10.1111/j.1360-0443.1992.tb02740.x · Cited by 116 · see citing works
Effects of alcoholism severity and smoking on executive neurocognitive function
Glass, J. M., Buu, A., Adams, K. M., Nigg, J. T., Puttler, L. I., Jester, J. M., & Zucker, R. A. (2008) · Addiction · doi:10.1111/j.1360-0443.2008.02415.x · Cited by 108 · see citing works
Impact of smoking abstinence on working memory neurocircuitry in adolescent daily tobacco smokers
Jacobsen, L. K., Mencl, W. E., Constable, R. T., Westerveld, M., & Pugh, K. R. (2007) · Psychopharmacology · doi:10.1007/s00213-007-0797-9 · Cited by 93 · see citing works
Substance abusers' self-awareness of the neurobehavioral consequences of addiction
Verdejo‐García, A., & Pérez-Garcı́a, M. (2008) · Psychiatry Research · doi:10.1016/j.psychres.2006.08.001 · Cited by 92 · see citing works
Fried, P. A., Watkinson, B., & Gray, R. (2006) · Neurotoxicology and Teratology · doi:10.1016/j.ntt.2006.06.003 · Cited by 81 · see citing works
Understanding drugs and behaviour
Parrott, A. C., Morinan, A., Moss, M. C., & Scholey, A. B. (2005) · Swinburne figshare (Swinburne University of Technology) · Cited by 69 · see citing works
Self-citationCigarette smoking and cognitive performance in healthy Swedish adults
Hill, R. D., Nilsson, L.-G., Nyberg, L. H., & Bäckman, L. (2003) · Age and Ageing · doi:10.1093/ageing/afg067 · Cited by 67 · see citing works
VanLandingham, M. (2008) · American Journal of Public Health · doi:10.2105/ajph.2007.110445e_7 · Cited by 66 · see citing works
The Impact of Excessive Alcohol Use on Prospective Memory: A Brief Review
Heffernan, T. (2008) · Current Drug Abuse Reviews · doi:10.2174/1874473710801010036 · Cited by 64 · see citing works
Self-citationChildhood IQ, smoking, and cognitive change from age 11 to 64 years
Whalley, L. J., Fox, H. C., Deary, I. J., & Starr, J. M. (2004) · Addictive Behaviors · doi:10.1016/j.addbeh.2004.04.014 · Cited by 63 · see citing works
Heffernan, T., Ling, J., Parrott, A. C., Buchanan, T., Scholey, A. B., & Rodgers, J. (2004) · Drug and Alcohol Dependence · doi:10.1016/j.drugalcdep.2004.11.008 · Cited by 52 · see citing works
Self-citationBrega, A. G., Grigsby, J., Kooken, R., Hamman, R. F., & Baxter, J. (2008) · Age and Ageing · doi:10.1093/ageing/afn121 · Cited by 48 · see citing works
Acute effects of cigarettes in non‐deprived smokers on memory, calculation and executive functions
Sakurai, Y., & Kanazawa, I. (2002) · Human Psychopharmacology Clinical and Experimental · doi:10.1002/hup.424 · Cited by 41 · see citing works
The effects of smoking and smoking abstinence on verbal and visuospatial working memory capacity.
Greenstein, J. E., & Kassel, J. D. (2009) · Experimental and Clinical Psychopharmacology · doi:10.1037/a0015699 · Cited by 34 · see citing works
Smoking and everyday prospective memory: a comparison of self-report and objective methodologies
Heffernan, T., O’Neill, T., & Moss, M. (2010) · Drug and Alcohol Dependence · doi:10.1016/j.drugalcdep.2010.06.012 · Cited by 34 · see citing works
Self-citationUnderstanding drugs and behaviour
Stott, P. (2004) · International Journal of Clinical Practice · doi:10.1111/j.1742-1241.2004.0385b.x · Cited by 33 · see citing works
Does Excessive Alcohol Use in Teenagers Affect Their Everyday Prospective Memory?
Heffernan, T., & Bartholomew, J. (2006) · Journal of Adolescent Health · doi:10.1016/j.jadohealth.2005.10.010 · Cited by 27 · see citing works
Self-citationProspective Memory: The Influence of Ecstasy, Cannabis and Nicotine Use and the WWW
Rodgers, J. (2011) · The Open Addiction Journal · doi:10.2174/1874941001104010044 · Cited by 7 · see citing works
Executive Cognitive Function and Cessation of Smoking Among Older Smokers
Tait, R. J., & Siru, R. (2009) · Aging Health · doi:10.2217/1745509x.5.1.33 · Cited by 7 · see citing works
Effects of smoking and nicotine withdrawal on prospective memory
Rash, C. J. (2007) · doi:10.31390/gradschool_dissertations.3448 · Cited by 4 · see citing works
Flagged first, then by citations
Cited by
Sorted by citations
England, L. J., Aagaard, K., Bloch, M., Conway, K., Cosgrove, K., Grana, R., Gould, T. J., Hatsukami, D., Jensen, F., Kandel, D., et al. (2017) · Neuroscience & Biobehavioral Reviews · doi:10.1016/j.neubiorev.2016.11.013 · Cited by 181 · see citing works
Investigating the impact of nicotine on executive functions using a novel virtual reality assessment
Jansari, A. S., Froggatt, D., Edginton, T. L., & Dawkins, L. (2012) · Addiction · doi:10.1111/add.12082 · Cited by 44 · see citing works
Memory failures for everyday tasks in caregivers of children with autism
Lovell, B., Elliot, H., Liu, C. C. S., & Wetherell, M. A. (2014) · Research in Developmental Disabilities · doi:10.1016/j.ridd.2014.07.019 · Cited by 32 · see citing works
Prospective memory: A comparative perspective
Crystal, J. D., & Wilson, A. G. (2014) · Behavioural Processes · doi:10.1016/j.beproc.2014.07.016 · Cited by 27 · see citing works
Exposure to second‐hand smoke damages everyday prospective memory
Heffernan, T., & O'Neill, T. S. (2012) · Addiction · doi:10.1111/j.1360-0443.2012.04056.x · Cited by 24 · see citing works
Self-citationRobey, A., Buckingham‐Howes, S., Salmeron, B. J., Black, M. M., & Riggins, T. (2014) · Journal of Experimental Child Psychology · doi:10.1016/j.jecp.2014.01.008 · Cited by 23 · see citing works
Hsu, Y., Huang, C.-F., Tu, M.-C., & Hua, M. (2014) · PLoS ONE · doi:10.1371/journal.pone.0112210 · Cited by 21 · see citing works
The effects of licit and illicit recreational drugs on prospective memory: a meta-analytic review
Platt, B., O’Driscoll, C., Curran, V. H., Rendell, P. G., & Kamboj, S. K. (2019) · Psychopharmacology · doi:10.1007/s00213-019-05245-9 · Cited by 21 · see citing works
Afolalu, E. F., Spies, E., Bacsó, Á., Clerc, E., Abetz‐Webb, L., Gallot, S., & Chrea, C. (2021) · Harm Reduction Journal · doi:10.1186/s12954-021-00526-z · Cited by 16 · see citing works
The Synergistic Impact of Excessive Alcohol Drinking and Cigarette Smoking upon Prospective Memory
Marshall, A., Heffernan, T., & Hamilton, C. J. (2016) · Frontiers in Psychiatry · doi:10.3389/fpsyt.2016.00075 · Cited by 15 · see citing works
Self-citationAu, R. W. C., Man, D. W. K., Shum, D., Lee, E. H. M., Xiang, Y., Ungvari, G. S., & Tang, W. K. (2012) · Asia-Pacific Psychiatry · doi:10.1111/j.1758-5872.2012.00217.x · Cited by 14 · see citing works
Assessment of ropinirole as a reinforcer in rhesus monkeys
Freeman, K. B., Heal, D. J., McCreary, A. C., & Woolverton, W. L. (2012) · Drug and Alcohol Dependence · doi:10.1016/j.drugalcdep.2012.04.001 · Cited by 10 · see citing works
Smoking impedes executive function and related prospective memory
Heffernan, T., Carling, A., O'Neill, T. S., & Hamilton, C. J. (2014) · Irish Journal of Psychological Medicine · doi:10.1017/ipm.2014.17 · Cited by 10 · see citing works
Self-citationZare, H., Sahragard, M., & Khodamoradi, S. (2014) · doi:10.22075/ijce.2013.137 · Cited by 6 · see citing works
A reverse factual analysis of the association between smoking and memory decline in China
Yi, Y., Liang, Y., & Rui, G. (2016) · International Journal for Equity in Health · doi:10.1186/s12939-016-0417-6 · Cited by 6 · see citing works
The link between tobacco smoking and susceptibility to misinformation
Piksa, M., Zaniewska, M., Cieslik-Starkiewicz, A., Kunst, J. R., Morzy, M., Piasecki, J., & Ryguła, R. (2025) · Psychopharmacology · doi:10.1007/s00213-025-06802-1 · Cited by 4 · see citing works
Performance of Smokers with DSM-5 Tobacco Use Disorder in Time-Based Complex Prospective Memory
Behrendt, S., Kliegel, M., Kräplin, A., & Bühringer, G. (2015) · Journal of Psychoactive Drugs · doi:10.1080/02791072.2015.1054008 · Cited by 3 · see citing works
Bhujade, R., Ibrahim, T., Wanjpe, A. K., & Chouhan, D. S. (2020) · Journal of Family Medicine and Primary Care · doi:10.4103/jfmpc.jfmpc_157_20 · Cited by 3 · see citing works
Biological Specifics of Musical Performing Memory Essence for Musical Performance Efficiency
Dymnikowa, M., Огородникова, Е. А., & Petrushin, V. I. (2020) · Asian Journal of Humanities and Social Studies · doi:10.24203/ajhss.v8i2.6122 · Cited by 1 · see citing works
Pamięć prospektywna osób z przewlekłymi chorobami układu oddechowego
Witkowska, M. A. (2024) · Przegląd Psychologiczny · doi:10.31648/przegldpsychologiczny.9447
Prospective Memory in People With Chronic Respiratory Diseases
Witkowska, M. A. (2024) · Przegląd Psychologiczny · doi:10.31648/przegldpsychologiczny.10606
Afolalu, E. F., Spies, E., Bacsó, Á., Clerc, E., Abetz‐Webb, L., Gallot, S., & Chrea, C. (2021) · Figshare · doi:10.6084/m9.figshare.15086104
- Authors
- Heffernan, T. M., O’Neill, T. S., & Moss, M.
- Affiliations
- Northumbria University (GB)
- Corresponding author
- Heffernan, T.M.
- ORCID
- Moss, M.
- Venue
- Drug and Alcohol Dependence
- Publisher
- Elsevier BV
- Published
- 2012-01
- Volume
- 120
- Issue
- 1-3
- Pages
- 1-6
- ISSN
- 0376-8716 (ISSN-L)
- OpenAlex
- W2046104260
- Cited by
- 22
- References
- 41
- Citations by year
- 2025: 1 · 2024: 2 · 2021: 2 · 2020: 2 · 2019: 1 · 2016: 3 · 2015: 1 · 2014: 6 · 2012: 4
- FWCI
- 4.12
- Type
- journal article
- Language
- en
- Open access
- closed
- Locations
- Drug and Alcohol Dependence (publishedVersion)
- PubMed (publishedVersion)
- Northumbria Research Link (Northumbria University) (submittedVersion)
- Topics
- Social Sciences › Psychology › Experimental and Cognitive Psychology › Cognitive Functions and Memory
- Health Sciences › Medicine › Physiology › Smoking Behavior and Cessation
- Health Sciences › Medicine › Psychiatry and Mental health › Dementia and Cognitive Impairment Research
- Keywords
- smoking, prospective memory, smokers, former smokers, never smokers, anxiety, depression, alcohol consumption
- MeSH terms
- Adolescent, Adult, Anxiety, Depression, Female, Humans, Intelligence Tests, Male, Memory Disorders, Neuropsychological Tests, Psychiatric Status Rating Scales, Surveys and Questionnaires, Smoking, Case-Control Studies, Young Adult
About these checks
Registry, retraction, Cites and statistics results are computed, not judged, with one exception: a printed reference that no index lists is read once by a model before it counts as a citation error. Claims are extracted by a model and kept only when their quote appears verbatim in the text; each cited source is then checked, with a model’s help, for whether it says what the claim relies on. Those verdicts can be wrong — read the claim’s quote and the cited source before relying on one.
Statistics and arithmetic are recomputed, not judged.
Confidence bands are shown only for fields calibrated on our annotated test set. None is calibrated yet, so no band is shown.
What counts as a claim ›How we measure confidence ›How we check this ›
Are you an author, or do you see a problem with this page? Request a review
