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Cited by 71Geochemistry and Elemental AnalysisGroundwater and Isotope GeochemistryGeochemistry and Geologic Mapping

Brine grades in Andean salars: When basin size matters A review of the Lithium Triangle

Open access
López Steinmetz, Romina Lucrecia, Salvi, Stefano·2021·Earth-Science Reviews
DOI 10.1016/j.earscirev.2021.103615
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Written from the paper’s full text.

TL;DR

This review compiles hydrochemical and geomorphological data for Andean salt pans and proposes the “Lithium Crescent,” an area larger than the traditional Lithium Triangle. It finds that salt-pan size scales with endorheic basin size and that mean Li grades are approximately half the maximum measured Li, with larger salt pans generally hosting higher-grade brines.

Key findings

  • The area containing all Andean Li-bearing salt pans extends beyond the Lithium Triangle and forms a curved crescent more than three times the size of the Triangle; maximum Li⁺ values occur in the central plateau between 66°30′–68°30′ W and 20°–24° S, with no clear geographic distribution otherwise.
  • Salt-pan surface areas correlate with endorheic basin areas (R = 0.89 for 55 salt pans); Uyuni, Atacama, and Arizaro have ~1:5 salt-pan/basin size ratios, while the other 52 sites are close to 1:10. Coipasa and Guayatayoc least fit these relationships.
  • Maximum Li is about twice mean Li (mean Li ≈ ½ max Li; R = 0.90 for 46 salt pans), with exceptions: Atacama 11:1, Uyuni 7:1, and Bolivian Pastos Grandes 1:1. Examples: Atacama mean 1,400 mg/L and max 6,400 mg/L; Uyuni mean 715 mg/L and max 4,720 mg/L; Cauchari mean 860 mg/L and max 1,739 mg/L; Olaroz mean 841 mg/L and max 1,213 mg/L.
  • Larger salt pans generally host higher-grade Li brines: relationships for >300 km² (R = 0.83, n = 7), 200–300 km² (R = 0.87, n = 4), and <~150 km² (R = 0.63, n = 23); 34 salt pans fit these ranges and 15 do not. Brines are Cl–SO₄ type, mostly Na–Mg, with Uyuni Mg–Na and Northern Puna Na–K exceptions; Li correlates with B (R = 0.78) and K (R = 0.68).

Methods

  • Review/compilation: hydrochemical and Li data for 49 Andean salt pans from peer-reviewed scientific literature, totaling 477 brine samples; areal surfaces of 55 salt pans and their basin catchments from satellite imagery (49 with Li data plus 6 without hydrochemical information).
  • Only residual brines from salt pans were included; springs, rivers, and streams were excluded. Most samples were shallow/sub-surface brines from hand-dug pits (<1 m), with Uyuni and Coipasa also including samples up to 10 m depth from 40 holes.
  • Salt pans grouped into Altiplano, Puna de Atacama, and Puna; main analysis used scatter diagrams, stoichiometric ratios, Pearson correlations, and regressions comparing Li, major ions, salt-pan areas, and basin areas.

Limitations

  • Stated: the brine dataset comes from diachronic sampling campaigns; most salt pans have only a unique sampling campaign with no longitudinal variation, and regional comparisons mix datasets collected under different climate, sampling, and analytical conditions. Only peer-reviewed articles were used.
  • Stated: specific location and depth of each of the 477 brines are not reported; samples are grouped by salt pan. Hydrochemical data remain limited for many Andean salt pans, and representative mean/max Li values require large datasets; the mean Li ≈ ½ max Li equation is valid from a statistic and regional perspective and does not replace a deposit-specific average from a large dataset.
  • Evident from the text: this is a secondary compilation without new field sampling or lithological/isotopic testing; the authors note that lithological characteristics likely contribute to each salar’s geochemical composition but that no such study has been carried out yet.

Model-written summary. Check it against the paper before relying on it.

Integrity signals

Registry

Crossref · 10.1016/j.earscirev.2021.103615

Cites

109 of 109 references verified0 citation errors · 0 not checkable

Statistics

Nothing to recompute.

Claims the paper makes

0 of 64 cited sources checked · 0 supported · 0 flagged

  • Findingcitation

    The maximum TDS values reported are of 351 g L-1 and 368 g L-1, respectively from Uyuni and Coipasa.

    “The maximum TDS values reported are of 351 g L -1 and 368 g L -1 , respectively from Uyuni and Coipasa (Ericksen and Salas, 1987).”
    Quote in the paperNot a substantial claim0 of 1 sources checked
    • cites Ericksen and Salas, 1987

      Not checked in the free run.

  • Findingown data

    The size function between areal surfaces of salt pans and their endorheic basins follows a proportional ratio across the Andean plateau.

    “Remarkably, our findings indicate that this size function follows in fact a proportional ratio across the Andean plateau.”
    Quote in the paperNot a substantial claim
    • Rests on an assumption: The compiled brine chemistry data from different salt pans are comparable despite being collected in different sampling campaigns and periods.
  • Findingcitation

    The Altiplano salt pans contain highly saline brines with mean TDS values comprised between 123 and 321 g L-1.

    “The Altiplano salt pans contain highly saline brines with mean TDS (Total Dissolved Solids) values comprised between 123 and 321 g L -1 (Table 3), although in most cases TDS are in a range from 100 to ~220 g L -1 (Risacher and Fritz, 1991; Table 2).”
    Quote in the paperNot a substantial claim0 of 1 sources checked
    • cites Risacher and Fritz, 1991

      Not checked in the free run.

  • Findingown data

    The Uyuni and Coipasa brines contain amongst the highest magnesium concentrations in the Andean plateau, with Mg2+ means of >15,000 and >12,000 mg L-1.

    “With Mg 2+ means of >15,000 and >12,000 mg L -1 , the Uyuni and Coipasa brines contain amongst the highest magnesium concentrations in the Andean plateau (Figs. 2 and 5 e, Tables 3 and 4).”
    Quote in the paperNot a substantial claim
  • Findingcitation

    The highest salt concentrations in Puna de Atacama are observed in brines from Surire, Atacama, and La Azufrera, where mean values grade between 178 and 287 g L-1.

    “The highest salt concentrations are observed in brines from Surire (#1), Atacama, and La Azufrera (#25), where mean values grade between 178 and 287 g L -1 (Tables 2 and 3).”
    Quote in the paperNot a substantial claim
  • May combine two claims. 52
  • Classified as probably not a substantial claim. 24

  • May combine two claims.

    Findingown data

    High Li-graded brines are stored in Hombre Muerto, Pastos Grandes, Pozuelos, Rio Grande, Salinas Grandes, and Rincon, where mean Li+ concentrations are between 280 and 570 mg L-1.

    “high Li-graded brines are stored in Hombre Muerto, Pastos Grandes (#49), Pozuelos (#48), Rio Grande, Salinas Grandes, and Rincon (#50), where mean Li + concentrations are between 280 and 570 mg L -1 (Table 3).”
    Quote in the paperNot a substantial claim

  • May combine two claims.

    Findingown data

    The concentrations of Li+ and B in the Altiplano brines plot along a line that defines a 3:1 proportion trend, and mean values are highly correlated (R = 0.78).

    “The concentrations of Li + and B in the Altiplano brines plot along a line that defines a 3:1 proportion trend (Fig. 6 c), and mean values are highly correlated (R = 0.78; Fig. 6 d).”
    Quote in the paperNot a substantial claim

  • May combine two claims.

    Findingown data

    Mean Mg:Li ratios are 22 in Uyuni, 40 and 47 in the Empexa and Coipasa, respectively, and as low as 2 in Pastos Grandes.

    “Mean Mg:Li ratios are 22 in Uyuni, 40 and 47 in the Empexa and Coipasa, respectively, and as low as 2 in Pastos Grandes (Fig. 6 C, Table 4).”
    Quote in the paperSubstantial claim

  • May combine two claims.

    Findingcitation

    TDS as low as 6 g L-1 have been found in some salars such as Jama, whereas TDS up to 381 g L-1 were found at Olaroz.

    “TDS as low as 6 g L -1 have been found in some salars such as Jama, whereas TDS up to 381 g L -1 were found at Olaroz, define the maximum measured values (García et al., 2019).”
    Quote in the paperNot a substantial claim0 of 1 sources checked
    • cites García et al., 2019 source

      Not checked in the free run.

  • Probably not a substantial claim: may not pass S3 (load-bearing), S4 (based).

    Findingnone given

    In the Puna de Atacama, only the Salar de Atacama is presently being mined for Li.

    “In the Puna de Atacama, only the Salar de Atacama is presently being mined for Li.”
    Quote in the paperNot a substantial claim

  • Probably not a substantial claim: may not pass S3 (load-bearing).

    Findingnone given

    Salt pans in the Puna de Atacama are located at altitudes between 2,300 (Atacama) and 4,500 (Pujsa) m asl.

    “Salt pans in the Puna de Atacama are located at altitudes between 2,300 (Atacama) and 4,500 (Pujsa, #15) m asl (Table 1, Fig. 1).”
    Quote in the paperNot a substantial claim

  • May combine two claims.

    Findingcitation

    In Uyuni the maximum reported Li value is of 4,720 mg L-1 with a mean of 715 mg L-1.

    “In Uyuni the maximum reported Li value is of 4,720 mg L -1 with a mean of 715 mg L -1 (Risacher and Fritz, 1991; Tables 2 and 3).”
    Quote in the paperNot a substantial claim0 of 1 sources checked
    • cites Risacher and Fritz, 1991

      Not checked in the free run.

  • May combine two claims.

    Findingown data

    Brines in Uyuni are of the Mg2+-Na+/Cl--SO42- type, with Mg2+ ≥ Na+, whereas in Coipasa, Empexa and Pastos Grandes brines are of the Na+-Mg2+/Cl--SO42- type, with Na+ > Mg2+.

    “Based on their major chemical compositions, brines in Uyuni are of the Mg 2+ -Na + / Cl --SO 4 2-type, with Mg 2+ ≥ Na + , whereas in Coipasa, Empexa and Pastos Grandes brines are of the Na + -Mg 2+ / Cl --SO 4 2-type, with Na + > Mg 2+ (Figs. 2 and 3 a).”
    Quote in the paperSubstantial claim

  • May combine two claims.

    Findingnone given

    Main characteristics of brines from Altiplano salars are their high Mg2+ concentrations and their relatively low K+ and Ca2+.

    “Main characteristics of brines from Altiplano salars are their high Mg 2+ concentrations and their relatively low K + and Ca 2+ .”
    Quote in the paperNot a substantial claim

  • May combine two claims.

    Findingnone given

    Mean Li concentrations in Cauchari and Olaroz reach 860 and 841 mg L-1, respectively.

    “In addition to these salt pans, where mean Li concentrations reach 860 and 841 mg L -1 , respectively”
    Quote in the paperNot a substantial claim

  • Probably not a substantial claim: may not pass S3 (load-bearing), S4 (based).

    Findingnone given

    Amongst the Puna salt pans, only Hombre Muerto and Olaroz are being actively mined for Li.

    “Amongst the Puna salt pans, only Hombre Muerto and Olaroz are being actively mined for Li.”
    Quote in the paperNot a substantial claim

  • Probably not a substantial claim: may not pass S3 (load-bearing). May combine two claims.

    Findingown data

    The Puna plateau holds 17 major salars located at altitudes ranging between 3,269 (Incahuasi) and 4,080 (Jama) m asl.

    “The Puna plateau holds 17 major salars that are located at altitudes ranging between 3,269 (Incahuasi, #39) and 4,080 (Jama, #53) m asl (Table 1; Fig. 1).”
    Quote in the paperNot a substantial claim

  • Probably not a substantial claim: may not pass S3 (load-bearing). May combine two claims.

    Findingnone given

    Atacama is the largest Chilean salt pan with 3,000 km2, and with a catchment area of 18,100 km2, also the largest endorheic basin in the Chilean portion of the plateau.

    “With its 3,000 km 2 , Atacama is the largest Chilean salt pan and, with a catchment area of 18,100 km 2 , also the largest endorheic basin in the Chilean portion of the plateau.”
    Quote in the paperNot a substantial claim

  • May combine two claims.

    Findingnone given

    Brines from the Puna salars are of the Na+-K+/Cl--SO42- type in the north, of the Na+-Mg2+/Cl--SO42- type in the south, and the SO42- concentrations increase from south to north.

    “Brines from the Puna salars are of the Na + -K + / Cl --SO 4 2-type in the north, of the Na + -Mg 2+ / Cl --SO 4 2-type in the south, and the SO 4 2concentrations increase from south to north (Figs. 2 and 3 a).”
    Quote in the paperNot a substantial claim

  • May combine two claims.

    Findingown data

    Composition with a Na-Mg signature largely predominates in the whole Andean plateau and in Tibet, with exceptions of Uyuni (Mg-Na signature) and Northern Puna salars (Na-K signature).

    “Our data compilation indicates that composition with a Na + -Mg 2+ signature largely predominate in the whole Andean plateau (and in Tibet), with the exceptions of Uyuni (Mg 2+ -Na + signature) and the Northern Puna salars (Na + -K + signature).”
    Quote in the paperNot a substantial claim

  • May combine two claims.

    Findingown data

    Brines with high Mg2+ concentrations occur in the Altiplano, whereas they are generally depleted in this cation in the Northern Puna.

    “Brines with high Mg 2+ concentrations occur in the Altiplano, whereas they are generally depleted in this cation in the Northern Puna.”
    Quote in the paperSubstantial claim

  • May combine two claims.

    Findingcitation

    In both Andean and Tibetan cases, brines commonly belong to the Cl-SO4 type, and hydrochemical variability is generally marked by variations in major cations.

    “In both cases, they commonly belong to the Cl - -SO 4 2-type, and the hydrochemical variability is generally marked by variations in the major cations (Figs. 2 and 3 a).”
    Quote in the paperNot a substantial claim

  • Probably not a substantial claim: may not pass S1 (asserted), S3 (load-bearing).

    Findingcitation

    In the Uyuni salar, Li concentrations increase concentrically and asymmetrically with depth, moving southward.

    “For example, if it is true that in the Uyuni salar Li concentrations increase concentrically and asymmetrically with depth, moving southward (Risacher and Fritz 1991; Fig. 7 c)”
    Quote in the paperNot a substantial claim0 of 1 sources checked
    • cites Risacher and Fritz 1991

      Not checked in the free run.

  • May combine two claims.

    Findingcitation

    The considered maximum Li+ and Mg2+ concentrations for Atacama are 6,400 and 80,000 mg L-1, respectively.

    “Notice that the considered maximum Li + and Mg 2+ concentrations for Atacama are of 6,400 and 80,000 mg L -1 , respectively (Moraga et al., 1974;Ide and Kunasz, 1989;Kunasz, 2006).”
    Quote in the paperNot a substantial claim0 of 3 sources checked
    • cites Moraga et al., 1974

      Not checked in the free run.

    • cites Ide and Kunasz, 1989

      Not checked in the free run.

    • cites Kunasz, 2006

      Not checked in the free run.

  • May combine two claims.

    Findingown data

    The spatial distribution of maximum Li+ is consistent with that of Mg2+, confirming that the most saline brines and highest ionic concentrations occur in the middle of the Andean plateau desert.

    “This spatial distribution is consistent with that of other cations, such as Mg 2+ (Figs. 9 c and d), confirming that the most saline brines and highest ionic concentrations occur in the middle of the Andean plateau desert.”
    Quote in the paperSubstantial claim

  • May combine two claims.

    Findingown data

    A regional assessment made it possible to define a relationship between mean and maximum Li concentrations for Andean salars, and to identify a proportionality between the surfaces of the salt pans and basins.

    “As seen in previous sections, a regional assessment has made it possible to define a relationship between mean and maximum Li concentrations for Andean salars, and to identify a proportionality between the surfaces of the salt pans and basins.”
    Quote in the paperSubstantial claim

  • May combine two claims.

    Findingnone given

    Despite the link between Li concentrations and surfaces not following a definite proportionality, there is some degree of relationship between Li grade and salt pan size.

    “Despite the fact that the link between Li concentrations and surfaces does not follow a definite proportionality, there is some degree of relationship between Li grade and salt pan size.”
    Quote in the paperSubstantial claim

  • May combine two claims.

    Findingnone given

    Up to now, the sizes of salt pans or basins have not been related to Li levels, in the Andes or elsewhere, nor have they been considered an integral condition for higher Li-graded brines.

    “Up to now, and contrarily to reserves, the sizes of salt pans or basins have not been related to Li levels, in the Andes or elsewhere, nor have they ever been considered as an integral condition for higher Li-graded brines.”
    Quote in the paperSubstantial claim

  • May combine two claims.

    Findingnone given

    Atacama, Uyuni and the Bolivian Pastos Grandes do not fit the 2:1 correlation, with maximum to mean Li proportions of 11:1, 7:1, and 1:1, respectively.

    “Atacama, Uyuni and the Bolivian Pastos Grandes do not fit this correlation, with maximum to mean Li proportions of 11:1, 7:1, and 1:1, respectively.”
    Quote in the paperSubstantial claim

  • May combine two claims.

    Findingown data

    Brines in Andean salt pans show a 2:1 proportionality between maximum Li values and mean concentrations, with a correlation R = 0.90 for 46 salt pans.

    “Brines in Andean salt pans show a 2:1 proportionality between maximum Li values and mean concentrations (Fig. 10 c), with a correlation R = 0.90 for 46 salt pans.”
    Quote in the paperSubstantial claim

  • May combine two claims.

    Findingnone given

    The area involving all Andean Li-bearing salt pans extends beyond the Lithium Triangle and corresponds to a curved crescent shape.

    “The area involving all of the Andean Li-bearing salt pans extends beyond the Lithium Triangle and corresponds in fact to a curved crescent shape.”
    Quote in the paperSubstantial claim

  • May combine two claims.

    Findingnone given

    Andean brines are mostly characterized by Li>B south of ~22°S and B>Li to the north of it.

    “up to 3:1, and the fact that they are mostly characterized by Li>B south of ~22°S and B>Li to the north of it, point to the absence of unambiguous Li:B patterns, consistently with B and Li being sourced from different lithologies.”
    Quote in the paperNot a substantial claim

  • May combine two claims.

    Findingnone given

    Andean brines are of the Cl-SO4 type, and compositional variability is marked by major cations: Na-Mg signatures largely predominate, with exceptions of Uyuni (Mg>Na) and Northern Puna salars (Na-K); high Mg2+ occurs in the Altiplano and Ca2+ has highest values in the Puna de Atacama.

    “Andean brines are of the Cl --SO 4 2-type, and the compositional variability is marked by major cations: Na + -Mg 2+ signatures largely predominate, with the exceptions of the Mg 2+ >Na + signature of Uyuni, and the Na + -K + signature in the Northern Puna salars (Argentina).High Mg 2+ concentrations occur in the Altiplano (Bolivia), and Ca 2+ has highest values in the Puna de Atacama (Chile).”
    Quote in the paperNot a substantial claim

  • May combine two claims.

    Findingcitation

    At Salar de Olaroz, the maximum measured Li is 1,213 mg/L whereas the average Li value resulting from mining operations is 841 mg/L.

    “the case of Salar de Olaroz in Fig. 10 c and in Table 4, where max Li measured is of 1,213 mg L -1 whereas the average Li value that result from mining operations is of 841 mg L -1 ; Garcia et al., 2019”
    Quote in the paperNot a substantial claim0 of 1 sources checked
    • cites Garcia et al., 2019 source

      Not checked in the free run.

  • Probably not a substantial claim: may not pass S3 (load-bearing), S4 (based).

    Findingnone given

    The size ratio for the Qaidam Basin in the Tibetan Plateau is close to the proportions found at Uyuni.

    “The size ratio for the Qaidam Basin in the Tibetan Plateau is close to the proportions found at Uyuni.”
    Quote in the paperNot a substantial claim

  • May combine two claims.

    Findingown data

    The main characteristics of salar brines in the Puna de Atacama are their high Ca2+ and their relatively low K+ when compared to brines from neighboring parts of the plateau.

    “The main characteristics of salar brines in the Puna de Atacama are their high Ca 2+ and their relatively low K + when compared to brines from neighboring parts of the plateau (Fig. 2).”
    Quote in the paperNot a substantial claim

  • May combine two claims.

    Findingown data

    The Li+ versus Na+ data trend includes most of the Altiplano brine samples and forms an oblique line showing Li+ increasing inversely to Na+, up to the concentrations of Uyuni samples RS15 and RZ1.

    “The second tendency depicted by the Li + versus Na + data trend includes most of the Altiplano brine samples, and forms an oblique line showing Li + increasing inversely to Na + , up to the concentrations of Uyuni samples RS15 and RZ1 (Figure 4 b).”
    Quote in the paperSubstantial claim

  • May combine two claims.

    Findingown data

    Max/mean Li ratios are 1 in Pastos Grandes (Bolivia), 7 in Uyuni, and 11 in Atacama.

    “Values for max/mean Li ratios are of 1 in Pastos Grandes (Bolivia), 7 in Uyuni, and 11 in Atacama.”
    Quote in the paperNot a substantial claim

  • Probably not a substantial claim: may not pass S3 (load-bearing), S4 (based).

    Findingnone given

    Li-bearing Andean salt pans are exclusively hosted in endorheic basins.

    “Li-bearing Andean salt pans are exclusively hosted in endorheic basins.”
    Quote in the paperNot a substantial claim

  • May combine two claims.

    Findingnone given

    In the Andes, measured maximum Li values are twice the mean Li concentrations, and the equation mean Li ≈ 1⁄2 max Li can be employed to predict indicative mean grades during brine-type deposit surveying in the Lithium Crescent.

    “In the Andes, measured maximum Li values (max Li) are twice the mean Li concentrations: the equation mean Li ≈ ½ max Li can be employed to predict indicative mean grades during brine-type deposit surveying in the Lithium Crescent.”
    Quote in the paperNot a substantial claim

  • May combine two claims.

    Findingown data

    These three proportionality ranges comprise most (i.e., 34) of the Andean salt pans, with 15 salt pans not fitting any relationship.

    “These three proportionality ranges comprise most (i.e., 34) of the Andean salt pans, with 15 salt pans not fitting any relationship (Fig. 11 b).”
    Quote in the paperSubstantial claim

  • Classified as probably not a substantial claim.

    Study design and conductreasoning

    Only peer-reviewed scientific articles were considered to construct the dataset.

    “we only considered peer-reviewed scientific articles to construct our dataset.”
    Quote in the paperSubstantial claim

  • Classified as probably not a substantial claim.

    Study design and conductnone given

    Care was taken to exclude values from springs, rivers or streams from the dataset.

    “Care was taken to exclude values from springs, rivers or streams from the dataset.”
    Quote in the paperSubstantial claim

  • Probably not a substantial claim: may not pass S3 (load-bearing).

    Premisecitation

    The formation of endorheic basins and salt pans is a function of the spatial and temporal distribution of the topographic configuration, sedimentation and erosional processes, as well as climate.

    “The formation of endorheic basins and salt pans is a function of the spatial and temporal distribution of the topographic configuration, sedimentation and erosional processes, as well as climate (Sobel et al., 2003;Hilley and Strecker, 2005;García-Castellanos, 2006;Garreaud, 2009;Tremblay et al., 2015;López Steinmetz et al., 2020b).”
    Quote in the paperNot a substantial claim0 of 3 sources checked
    • cites Sobel et al., 2003

      Not checked in the free run.

    • cites Hilley and Strecker, 2005

      Not checked in the free run.

    • cites García-Castellanos, 2006

      Not checked in the free run.

  • May combine two claims.

    Premisecitation

    No clear geographical pattern in Li distribution (nor concentration) has been found across the Lithium Crescent, except that maximum Li concentrations have been reported from salt pans located in the center of the plateau.

    “No clear geographical pattern in Li distribution (nor concentration) has been found across the Lithium Crescent (López Steinmetz et al., 2020a), except that maximum Li concentrations have been reported from salt pans located in the center of the plateau (Fig. 1).”
    Quote in the paperNot a substantial claim0 of 1 sources checked
    • cites López Steinmetz et al., 2020a

      Not checked in the free run.

    • Rests on an assumption: The compiled brine chemistry data from different salt pans are comparable despite being collected in different sampling campaigns and periods.

  • May combine two claims.

    Premisecitation

    The halite nucleus of Salar de Atacama spreads for an area of 1,100 km2 and ~1,000 m depth, in the southern part of the salar, whereas the northern part is clastic dominated and gypsum rich.

    “Here, the halite nucleus (i.e., mature salar) spreads for an area of 1,100 km 2 and ~1,000 m depth, in the southern part of the salar, whereas the northern part is clastic dominated and gypsum rich (Boutt et al. 2016;Corenthal et al. 2016;and references therein).”
    Quote in the paperNot a substantial claim0 of 2 sources checked
    • cites Boutt et al. 2016

      Not checked in the free run.

    • cites Corenthal et al. 2016 source

      Not checked in the free run.

  • May combine two claims.

    Premisecitation

    Andean mature salars, such as Atacama, correspond to halite dominated pans, whereas immature salars, like Uyuni and Olaroz, are mostly filled by clastic saline muds.

    “Andean mature salars, such as Atacama, correspond to halite dominated pans, whereas immature salars, like Uyuni and Olaroz, are mostly filled by clastic saline muds (Houston et al., 2011).”
    Quote in the paperNot a substantial claim0 of 1 sources checked
    • cites Houston et al., 2011 source

      Not checked in the free run.

  • May combine two claims.

    Premisecitation

    The salt pan of Atacama is the most important operating Li mine in world today, with mean Li grades of 1,400 mg L-1 and maximum measured concentrations reaching 6,400 mg L-1.

    “the salt pan of Atacama is the most important operating Li mine in world today, with mean Li grades of 1,400 mg L -1 and maximum measured concentrations reaching 6,400 mg L -1 (Moraga et al., 1974;Ide and Kunasz, 1989;Kunasz, 2006).”
    Quote in the paperNot a substantial claim0 of 3 sources checked
    • cites Moraga et al., 1974

      Not checked in the free run.

    • cites Ide and Kunasz, 1989

      Not checked in the free run.

    • cites Kunasz, 2006

      Not checked in the free run.

  • May combine two claims.

    Premisecitation

    During operations, pumping in a mature salar produces a shallow depression cone of the water table around the pumping well, whereas in immature salars the cone deepens faster than it extends horizontally.

    “During operations, pumping in a mature salar conduces to the development of a shallow depression cone of the water table around the pumping well, whereas in immature salars the cone deepens faster than it extends horizontally (Houston et al., 2011).”
    Quote in the paperNot a substantial claim0 of 1 sources checked
    • cites Houston et al., 2011 source

      Not checked in the free run.

  • Probably not a substantial claim: may not pass S3 (load-bearing).

    Premisecitation

    A typical feature of evolved and highly saline waters is a composition marked by the presence of Cl- and SO4 2-, and a depletion in CO3 2-/HCO3-.

    “A typical feature of evolved (evaporated) and highly saline waters is a composition marked by the presence of Cl -and SO 4 2-, and a depletion in CO 3 2-/HCO 3 - (Langbein, 1961;Hardie and Eugster, 1970;Eugster, 1980).”
    Quote in the paperNot a substantial claim0 of 3 sources checked
    • cites Langbein, 1961 source

      Not checked in the free run.

    • cites Hardie and Eugster, 1970

      Not checked in the free run.

    • cites Eugster, 1980 source

      Not checked in the free run.

  • May combine two claims.

    Premisecitation

    Basement inherited heterogeneities, Cenozoic Andean tectonics and Neogene plateau rise were key factors for the formation of endorheic basins in the plateau, while the arid climate ensured their preservation.

    “Basement inherited heterogeneities (Hongn et al., 2007), Cenozoic Andean tectonics (actively uplifting ranges) and Neogene plateau rise were key factors for the formation of endorheic basins in the plateau, while the arid climate (Garreaud, 2009) has ensured their preservation (Vandervoort et al., 1995;López Steinmetz et al., 2020b).”
    Quote in the paperNot a substantial claim0 of 3 sources checked
    • cites Hongn et al., 2007 source

      Not checked in the free run.

    • cites Garreaud, 2009 source

      Not checked in the free run.

    • cites Vandervoort et al., 1995 source

      Not checked in the free run.

  • Probably not a substantial claim: may not pass S3 (load-bearing), S4 (based). May combine two claims.

    Interpretationreasoning

    If large catchments are more capable of generating a greater amount of suspended and dissolved load than smaller ones, then under similar conditions large catchments would be required for the largest salt pans to form.

    “It could only be argued that if large catchments are more capable of generating a greater amount of suspended and dissolved load than smaller ones, then under similar conditions (i.e., geological history including lithology, deformation, volcanism and related hydrothermal processes, climate, etc.), large catchments would be required for the largest salt pans to form.”
    Quote in the paperNot a substantial claim

  • May combine two claims.

    Premisecitation

    Two distinctive origins have been suggested for boron: a volcanic contribution for the western plateau and weathering of volcanoclastic sequences from the Paleozoic basement for the eastern plateau.

    “Two distinctive origins have been suggested as sources for boron: for the western plateau, isotopic values indicate a volcanic contribution, mostly Neogene meso-silicic pyroclastic rocks and related hydrothermal systems, whereas weathering of volcanoclastic sequences from the Paleozoic basement are the probable source of B in the eastern plateau (Kaseman et al., 2004).”
    Quote in the paperNot a substantial claim0 of 1 sources checked
    • cites Kaseman et al., 2004 source

      Not checked in the free run.

  • May combine two claims.

    Premisecitation

    The Qaidam Basin surface is 121,000 km2, one-fourth of which is covered by numerous saline lakes and playas.

    “The basin's surface is 121,000 km 2 , one-fourth of which covered by numerous saline lakes and playas (Yu et al., 2013).”
    Quote in the paperSubstantial claim0 of 1 sources checked
    • cites Yu et al., 2013

      Not checked in the free run.

  • Probably not a substantial claim: may not pass S3 (load-bearing). May combine two claims.

    Premisecitation

    The Qaidam Basin in the northern Tibetan Plateau holds world-class Li-brine type deposits comprising 80% of the Li-brine resources found in China.

    “For instance, the Qaidam Basin (ca. 94°E -38°N) in the northern Tibetan Plateau holds world-class Li-brine type deposits comprising 80% of the Li-brine resources found in China (Keslar et al., 2012).”
    Quote in the paperNot a substantial claim0 of 1 sources checked
    • cites Keslar et al., 2012

      Not checked in the free run.

  • Probably not a substantial claim: may not pass S3 (load-bearing).

    Interpretationreasoning

    The salt pan/basin size proportionality could apply to other endorheic basins in arid regions.

    “The salt pan/basin size proportionality could apply to other endorheic basins in arid regions.”
    Quote in the paperNot a substantial claim

  • May combine two claims.

    Interpretationreasoning

    These models are consistent with the absence of a clear geographical distribution of Li in salars across the plateau, because Li is sourced from a widespread Paleozoic basement that underlies the salars across the plateau.

    “These models are consistent with the absence of a clear geographical distribution of Li in salars across the plateau, because Li is sourced from a lithological unit that is widespread the Paleozoic basement that underlies the salars across the plateau.”
    Quote in the paperSubstantial claim

  • May combine two claims.

    Premisecitation

    The most relevant factors governing Li grades in salt pans are the existence of input sources of Li, hydrological isolation, and aridity.

    “The most relevant factors governing Li grades in salt pans are the existence of input sources of Li, hydrological isolation, and aridity (Munk et al., 2016).”
    Quote in the paperSubstantial claim0 of 1 sources checked
    • cites Munk et al., 2016

      Not checked in the free run.

  • Classified as probably not a substantial claim.

    Premisenone given

    A relatively restricted number of data is a typical situation in the initial phases of most mining projects.

    “In fact, a relatively restricted number of data is also a typical situation in the initial phases of most mining projects.”
    Quote in the paperSubstantial claim

  • Classified as probably not a substantial claim.

    Interpretationreasoning

    Before the Pleistocene, the unified surface area of the basins (Salinas Grandes + Guayatayoc; ~11,000 km2) would correlate with the area of the precursor salt pans (Grandes + Guayatayoc + megafan, ~920 km2).

    “This means that, before the Pleistocene, the unified surface area of the basins (Salinas Grandes + Guayatayoc; ~11,000 km 2 ?) would correlate with the area of the precursor salt pans (Grandes + Guayatayoc + megafan, ~920 km 2 ?).”
    Quote in the paperSubstantial claim

  • Probably not a substantial claim: may not pass S3 (load-bearing).

    Premisecitation

    Other studies have reported Li isotopic data showing that volcanic and Paleozoic basement rocks represent the primary source for Li in the Andean plateau.

    “As already mentioned in section 5.1.,other studies have reported Li isotopic data showing that volcanic and Paleozoic basement rocks represent the primary source for Li in the Andean plateau (Egenhoff and Lucassen, 2003;Peralta Arnold et al., 2017;García et al., 2019;Meixner et al., 2019).”
    Quote in the paperNot a substantial claim0 of 3 sources checked
    • cites Egenhoff and Lucassen, 2003

      Not checked in the free run.

    • cites Peralta Arnold et al., 2017 source

      Not checked in the free run.

    • cites García et al., 2019 source

      Not checked in the free run.

  • May combine two claims.

    Interpretationcitation

    This process resulted in the formation of a large (>500 km2) distributive fluvial system, which led to the subdivision of the precursor flats and the formation of two individual salars and respective basins, Salinas Grandes and Guayatayoc.

    “This process resulted in the formation of a large (>500 km 2 ) distributive fluvial system (sensu Weissman et al., 2015), which lead to the subdivision of the precursor flats and the formation of two individual salars and respective basins, Salinas Grandes and Guayatayoc.”
    Quote in the paperSubstantial claim0 of 1 sources checked
    • cites Weissman et al., 2015 source

      Not checked in the free run.

  • Probably not a substantial claim: may not pass S4 (based).

    Interpretationnone given

    The mean Li value obtained through equation (1) is valid from a statistic and regional perspective.

    “It is important to note that the mean Li value obtained through equation ( 1) is valid from a statistic and regional perspective.”
    Quote in the paperNot a substantial claim

  • Classified as probably not a substantial claim. May combine two claims.

    Interpretationreasoning

    Equation (1) does not replace the specific average value of a deposit obtained from a large dataset, but provides a useful order-of-magnitude indication.

    “Obviously, it does not replace the specific average value of a deposit obtained from a large dataset, but provides a useful order-of-magnitude indication which that can be quite valuable”
    Quote in the paperSubstantial claim

  • Probably not a substantial claim: may not pass S3 (load-bearing).

    Interpretationreasoning

    In the case where only few grade data were collected in one salt pan, the mean Li grade would be hard to determine.

    “In the case where only few grade data were collected in one salt pan, the mean Li grade would be hard to determine.”
    Quote in the paperNot a substantial claim

  • Probably not a substantial claim: may not pass S3 (load-bearing).

    Interpretationreasoning

    Formulation (1) defines a dynamic approach to mean Li values, implying that the predicted mean Li will change and evolve as the dataset increases during prospection.

    “The formulation (1) thus defines a dynamic approach to mean Li values, which implies that the predicted mean Li will change and evolve as the dataset increases during prospection.”
    Quote in the paperNot a substantial claim

  • May combine two claims.

    Interpretationreasoning

    Under analogous conditions, larger salt pans should be expected to contain higher Li-graded brines than smaller ones, which would be a useful criterion for surveying brine-type deposits.

    “As discussed above, under analogous conditions (i.e., substrate and surface lithology, characteristic and density of displaying structures, number, density, and hydrochemical characteristics of springs, climate, etc.), larger salt pans should be expected to contain higher Li-graded brines than smaller ones, which would be a very useful criterion for surveying brine-type deposits.”
    Quote in the paperSubstantial claim

  • Probably not a substantial claim: may not pass S3 (load-bearing). May combine two claims.

    Interpretationnone given

    Gray zones in panels a) and b) signal trends that are independent from the 1:1 ratio and could correspond to brine saturation.

    “Gray zones in panels a) and b) signal trends that are independent from the 1:1 ratio (dashed line) and that could correspond to brine saturation.”
    Quote in the paperNot a substantial claim

  • May combine two claims.

    Interpretationreasoning

    This implies that not only the largest but also the oldest salars would be expected to contain the largest Li resources.

    “This thus implies that not only the largest but also the oldest salars would be the ones expected to contain the largest Li resources.”
    Quote in the paperSubstantial claim

  • Probably not a substantial claim: may not pass S3 (load-bearing), S4 (based). May combine two claims.

    Interpretationnone given

    Salar de Pastos Grandes (Puna) and Salar del Rincón are respectively examples of mature and immature Andean salars.

    “Salar de Pastos Grandes (Puna), and b) Salar del Rincón, respectively examples of mature and immature Andean salars.”
    Quote in the paperNot a substantial claim

  • May combine two claims.

    Interpretationreasoning

    Li+ concentrations increase while halite precipitates.

    “This pattern, which most likely corresponds to brine saturation with respect to halite, suggest that the Li + concentrations increase while halite precipitates.”
    Quote in the paperSubstantial claim

  • May combine two claims.

    Interpretationreasoning

    The fact that Li levels increase with increasing salar size suggests that other processes are acting at the scale of the basin, likely tied to geomorphology and presumably the age of the basin.

    “On the other hand, the fact that Li levels increase with increasing salar size suggests that other processes are acting at the scale of the basin, and these are likely tied to geomorphology, and, presumably, the age of the basin.”
    Quote in the paperSubstantial claim

  • May combine two claims.

    Interpretationreasoning

    Li levels depend on basin-scale processes, on geomorphology and, presumably, also on the age of the basin; therefore, it is likely the largest and oldest salars that are expected to hold the greatest Li concentrations.

    “Li levels depend on basin-scale processes, on geomorphology and, presumably, also on the age of the basin: therefore, it is likely the largest and oldest salars that are expected to hold the greatest Li concentrations.”
    Quote in the paperNot a substantial claim

  • May combine two claims.

    Interpretationreasoning

    Time dependence of Li grades implies a significant role of the age of endorheism onset, of the history of Li supply, and of the persistence of arid conditions.

    “Time dependence of Li grades implies a significant role of the age of endorheism onset, of the history of Li supply and of the persistence of arid conditions.”
    Quote in the paperNot a substantial claim
69 of 69

  • The paper relies on this without support.

    The compiled brine chemistry data from different salt pans are comparable despite being collected in different sampling campaigns and periods.

    “These aspects imply disparate frameworks for time-dependent conditions that can influence the sampling and analytical methodology.”

  • The paper relies on this without support.

    The compiled regional dataset is sufficiently representative of Andean salt pans to reveal regional relationships.

    “In summary, the integrity of the available regional data evidences some degree of correspondence between Li grades and salar sizes.”

  • The paper relies on this without support.

    The maximum Li and mean Li values compiled from different sources are comparable across salt pans.

    “Brines in Andean salt pans show a 2:1 proportionality between maximum Li values and mean concentrations (Fig. 10 c), with a correlation R = 0.90 for 46 salt pans.”
3 of 3

Claims other papers make about this one

Each is checked against this paper’s own text: does it say what the citing paper says it does?

  • Brine-based sources are being actively developed in the salars located in Chile, Argentina, and Bolivia in the lithium triangle.

    “Brine-based sources are being actively developed in the salars located in Chile, Argentina, and Bolivia in what is colloquially known as the “lithium triangle” (López Steinmetz and Salvi, 2021).”

    From Life cycle environmental impacts of current and future battery-grade lithium supply from brine and spodumene (2022) · cites this paper as López Steinmetz and Salvi, 2021

    The Introduction identifies the Lithium Triangle by salars in Chile, Bolivia, and Argentina and describes an Andean lithium rush driven by brine deposits. Section 4.2 says Chile’s Salar de Atacama is being mined for lithium. The passages do not establish that brine sources are actively being developed in all three countries, particularly Bolivia and Argentina. (LLM, conf=0.82)

    Experimental — accuracy not yet measured

  • Chemical analyses of South American salt lakes are used and reveal substantial variability of impacts as a function of brine chemistry within the same site.

    “Chemical analyses of South American salt lakes55 are used and reveal the substantial variability of impacts as a function of brine chemistry within the same site (Figures A5–A7).”

    From Current and Future Impacts of Lithium Carbonate from Brines: A Global Regionalized Life Cycle Assessment Model (2025) · cites this paper as [55]

  • These results are unable to provide clear systematic outcomes about lithium concentration spatial variations/patterns, or about salars' similarities/anomalies.

    “As for López Steinmetz and Salvi (2021) these results are unable to provide clear systematic outcomes about lithium concentration spatial variations/ patterns, or about salars' similarities and/anomalies.”

    From Understanding the spatial variation in lithium concentration of high Andean Salars using diagnostic factors (2024) · cites this paper as López Steinmetz and Salvi (2021)

  • This contradicts the assumption that only larger salars have higher lithium concentrations as postulated by López Steinmetz and Salvi (2021).

    “This contradicts the assumption that only larger salars have higher lithium concentrations as postulated by López Steinmetz and Salvi (2021).”

    From Understanding the spatial variation in lithium concentration of high Andean Salars using diagnostic factors (2024) · cites this paper as López Steinmetz and Salvi (2021)

  • Elevated concentrations of lithium exist outside the area 66°30′ to 68°30′ / 30°-24° proposed by López Steinmetz and Salvi (2021).

    “What is clear is that elevated concentrations of lithium exist outside of 66 o 30′ to 68 o 30' /30 o -24 o proposed by López Steinmetz and Salvi (2021).”

    From Understanding the spatial variation in lithium concentration of high Andean Salars using diagnostic factors (2024) · cites this paper as López Steinmetz and Salvi (2021)

Self-check

Percentages, sums and reported differences re-computed from the paper’s own numbers.

Each contradiction between two passages listed here was confirmed by an independent check.

  • Atacama's maximum-to-mean lithium ratio is reported inconsistently

    Major

    The discussion and Figure 10 caption give Atacama a maximum-to-mean Li ratio of 11:1, whereas Table 4 gives a ratio of 3-5. This changes the reported size of an exception to the paper's central 2:1 relationship.

  • Gorbea's reported maximum magnesium is below its mean

    Minor

    Table 4 lists Gorbea's mean Mg concentration as 26,810 mg L -1 but its maximum as 4,225 mg L -1. A maximum cannot be lower than the mean of the same measurements.

2 of 2

Cites

Flagged first, then by citations

Research works printed but not linked: 9

  1. Brackebusch, 1883, Estudios sobre la Formación Petrolífera de Jujuy, Boletín de la Academia Nacional de Ciencias de Córdoba., 5, 137
  2. Brackebusch, 1891, Mapa geológico del interior de la República Argentina, escala 1:1.000.000, Gotha.
  3. Crespo, 1987, Tratamiento químico de salmueras del Salar de Uyuni, Potosí, UMSa-ORSTOM, Informe, 7
  4. Davis, 1986, Origin of the lithium-rich brine, Clayton Valley, Nevada. U.S, Geol. Den. Surv. Bull., 1622, 131
  5. Ericksen, 1961, Rhyolite tuff, a source of the salts of northern Chile. Geol. Survey Research. U.S, Geol. Surv. Prof. Pap., 424, C224
  6. Ericksen, 1976, Lithium resources of salars in the Central Andes. U.S, Geol. Surv. Prof. Pap., 1005, 66
  7. López Steinmetz, 2015, Hydrological change during the Pleistocene-Holocene transition associated with the Last Glacial Maximum-Altithermal in the eastern border of northern Puna, Andean Geol., 42, 1
  8. López Steinmetz, 2020, Landscape and drainage evolution during the Cenozoic in the Salinas Grandes Basin, Andean Plateau of NW Argentina, Geomorphology., 353, 107032, 10.1016/j.geomorph.2020.107032 · DOI
  9. Turner, 1959, Estratigrafía del cordón de Escaya y de la Sierra de Rinconada (Jujuy), Rev. Asoc. Geol. Argent., 13, 15

Cited by

Sorted by citations

Related

Authors
López Steinmetz, R. L., & Salvi, S.
Affiliations
Centre National de la Recherche Scientifique (FR)
ORCID
Salvi, Stefano
Venue
Earth-Science Reviews
Publisher
Elsevier BV
Published
2021-06
Volume
217
Pages
103615
ISSN
0012-8252 (ISSN-L)
DOI
10.1016/j.earscirev.2021.103615
OpenAlex
W3147325624
Cited by
71
References
109
Citations by year
2026: 14 · 2025: 24 · 2024: 13 · 2023: 12 · 2022: 8
FWCI
4.96
Type
journal article
Language
en
Open access
Licence
Locations
  • Earth-Science Reviews (publishedVersion)
  • HAL (submittedVersion, other-oa)
  • CONICET Digital (CONICET) (submittedVersion, cc-by-nc-sa)
Topics
  • Physical Sciences › Earth and Planetary Sciences › Geochemistry and Petrology › Geochemistry and Elemental Analysis
  • Physical Sciences › Earth and Planetary Sciences › Geochemistry and Petrology › Groundwater and Isotope Geochemistry
  • Physical Sciences › Computer Science › Artificial Intelligence › Geochemistry and Geologic Mapping
Keywords
lithium triangle, lithium brines, salt pans, Salar, endorheic basin, brine chemistry, lithium exploration, Central Andes

About these checks

Registry, retraction, Cites and statistics results are computed, not judged, with one exception: a printed reference that no index lists is read once by a model before it counts as a citation error. Claims are extracted by a model and kept only when their quote appears verbatim in the text; each cited source is then checked, with a model’s help, for whether it says what the claim relies on. Those verdicts can be wrong — read the claim’s quote and the cited source before relying on one.

Claims read by deepseek-v4.1-flash under definition version 3 (extract-v3) on 2026-10-10.

Classified by jev-1.13-20260917 (gold-guideline-v0.2) on 2026-10-10.

Statistics and arithmetic are recomputed, not judged.

Confidence bands are shown only for fields calibrated on our annotated test set. None is calibrated yet, so no band is shown.

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