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Towards the lithium-ion battery production network: Thinking beyond mineral supply chains
Open accessAbstract
The increasing role of electricity as an energy carrier in decarbonising economies is driving a growing demand for electrical energy storage in the form of battery systems. Two battery applications driving demand growth are electric vehicles and stationary forms of energy storage. Consequently, established battery production networks are increasingly intersecting with – and being transformed by – actors and strategies in the transport and power sectors, in ways that are important to understand. Most analyses of battery production adopt a supply chain approach, focussing on the flow and transformation of materials from primary production via manufacturing to final assembly. They pay only limited attention to organisational and geographical relations, and they overlook critical areas of intersection between battery production and OEM manufacturing for automotive and power sectors. As a result, supply chain approaches do not fully account for emergent properties of battery production networks. To remedy this, we deploy a global production network (GPN) approach that highlights the increasing intersection of battery manufacturing with the automotive and power sectors, informed by original research with key respondents in battery R&D and commercialization at the collaborative interfaces of academia, industry and government. Our GPN approach augments conventional supply chain accounts based on battery manufacturing in two ways: it identifies the economic and non-economic actors, network relations and multiple locations that constitute the global battery production network; and focuses on firm strategies of innovation, cooperation and competition through which this network acquires its organisationally and geographically dynamic character, (specifically increasing inter-industry intersections), and the multifaceted role of the state. The paper concludes by reflecting on the implications of this alternative account for understanding key areas of policy concern, and for analyses of the geopolitical economy of energy system transformation.
Checked 2026-10-10 · 3 references not checked yet
Overview
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Written from the paper’s full text.
TL;DR
The paper argues that lithium-ion battery production is better understood as a global production network (GPN) than as a mineral supply chain, because automotive OEMs, states, and power-sector actors increasingly shape its organisation and geography. Using documentary evidence and interviews, it shows how firm strategies, inter-industry intersections, and state regionalisation efforts drive the network’s dynamic configuration.
Key findings
- Supply-chain analyses focus on material flows and overlook organisational/geographical relations and intersections with automotive and power sectors; a GPN approach identifies economic and non-economic actors, network relations, multiple locations, and the state’s multi-faceted role.
- Battery manufacturing is highly concentrated: China represented around 77% of global battery production capacity in 2021; gigafactories grew from 3 factories (~60 GWh) in 2015 to around 150 factories (~1000 GWh) at end-2021, with a pipeline to 2030 of over 280 plants (~6000 GWh); Europe’s capacity was expected to increase 13-fold between 2020 and 2025 (from 28 to 368 GWh).
- Automotive OEMs increasingly act as lead firms through long-term contracts, direct investment, and joint ventures; six cell suppliers (LG, CATL, Panasonic, Samsung, BYD, SKI) were collectively responsible for more than 89% of battery capacity and battery metals deployed in passenger EVs in 2020, and Tesla deployed 22.5 GWh in H2 2020.
- States act as facilitators, regulators, producers, and buyers, using climate policy, mineral ownership rules, infrastructure provision, and trade rules to regionalise production; vertical integration and emerging business models such as battery-as-a-service and recycling extend the network downstream.
Methods
- The paper deploys a global production network (GPN) approach, reviewing academic and grey literature on lithium-ion battery production and supply chains.
- Original empirical material comes from semi-structured interviews with a dozen respondents involved in battery R&D and commercialization at collaborative interfaces of academia, research institutions, industry, and government in Australia, the EU, and the UK between June and September 2021.
- Analysis uses illustrative cases, tables, and figures to identify actors, network forms, territorial dimensions, and three dynamics: vertical integration, regulation/trade/material sourcing, and emerging business models.
Limitations
- Stated: the analysis adopts a simplified view, focusing on lead firms and states and identifying only a handful of significant dynamics; the paper also notes that caveats and uncertainties attend rapid demand projections.
- Evident: the qualitative interview sample is small (a dozen respondents) and geographically limited to Australia, the EU, and the UK, so perspectives from China, Japan, South Korea, and other key production locations are not directly represented.
- Evident: many empirical claims rely on secondary and grey literature, industry reports, and news sources rather than primary data.
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Claims the paper makes
52 Not checked yet · 52 Own interpretation · 32 No basis given · 6 Own result
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In the paper
“The first group of firms comprises established battery producers -Panasonic, LG, SKI, Samsung, BYD, and CATLwho now serve as Tier 1 battery suppliers to automotive OEMs.”
§ Towards the lithium-ion battery production network: Thinking beyond mineral supply chains > 4.1. Battery manufacturing: established and emerging producers, and the growing role of automotive OEMs as lead firms
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In the paper
“Government initiatives have also been unfolding around lithium occurrences (e.g. in Chile and Western Australia) -as states seek to generate additional value from mineral processing and other downstream activities (Table 6).”
§ Towards the lithium-ion battery production network: Thinking beyond mineral supply chains > 4.2.2. States as facilitators, regulators and producers -mineral occurrence and ownership
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In the paper
“OEMs use long-term contracts and off-take agreements to secure battery supply (Table 4, column 2).”
§ Towards the lithium-ion battery production network: Thinking beyond mineral supply chains > 4.1.1. Long-term contracts and direct investment by OEMs in battery production
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In the paper
“A common factor across these projects is their access to innovative battery technology for commercialization, either via licensing (e.g.Freyr and 24 M's solvent and binder-free processing technology) or acquisition (e.g.Northvolt and Cuberg's NMC cathode, lithium-metal anode and non-flammable liquid electrolyte cell technology) (see also [180]).”
§ Towards the lithium-ion battery production network: Thinking beyond mineral supply chains > 4.1.1. Long-term contracts and direct investment by OEMs in battery production
What the sources say
- Not checked yetcites [180]
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In the paper
“Northvolt is one of several new industrial project developers with gigafactory plans to have concluded substantial contracts from, and investment by, automotive OEMs (Table 5).”
§ Towards the lithium-ion battery production network: Thinking beyond mineral supply chains > 4.1.1. Long-term contracts and direct investment by OEMs in battery production
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In the paper
“Leading automotive OEMs are increasingly concluding direct offtake agreements with battery mineral producers, rather than relying on battery manufacturers to source these materials.”
§ Towards the lithium-ion battery production network: Thinking beyond mineral supply chains > 4.1.1. Long-term contracts and direct investment by OEMs in battery production
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In the paper
“More recently, OEMs have supplemented these supply agreements by making direct investments in new battery manufacturing start-ups with the potential to become large-scale future suppliers (Table 4).”
§ Towards the lithium-ion battery production network: Thinking beyond mineral supply chains > 4.1.1. Long-term contracts and direct investment by OEMs in battery production
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In the paper
“Since 2017, the city of Vaasa in Finland has been developing an energy cluster anchored around battery manufacturing -GigaVaasaby attracting companies, such as ABB, Hitachi ABB Power Grids, Wärtsilä, Danfoss and Yaskawa, which utilise energy storage in their products.”
§ Towards the lithium-ion battery production network: Thinking beyond mineral supply chains > 4.2.3. States as facilitators, regulators and buyers -provisioning of incentivizing infrastructures
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In the paper
“States have invested in research infrastructure in a bid to attract gigafactory development (and other precursor-material production).”
§ Towards the lithium-ion battery production network: Thinking beyond mineral supply chains > 4.2.3. States as facilitators, regulators and buyers -provisioning of incentivizing infrastructures
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In the paper
“Gigafactories are the epicentre of this process that includes both backward (upstream) and forward (downstream) integration (represented in Fig. 2 by dynamics 1a, 1b, 1c and 1d).”
§ Towards the lithium-ion battery production network: Thinking beyond mineral supply chains > 4.3.1. Vertical integration
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In the paper
“IBC will invest in nickel mines, smelters, and associated upstream industries, and act as a major (51%) shareholder in the upstream EV battery sector.”
§ Towards the lithium-ion battery production network: Thinking beyond mineral supply chains > 4.2.2. States as facilitators, regulators and producers -mineral occurrence and ownership
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In the paper
“As Tesla has harnessed its manufacturing joint venture with Panasonic to enter the energy storage market, so Panasonic has sought to reduce its dependence on Tesla as customer and diversify to other car manufacturers [185].”
§ Towards the lithium-ion battery production network: Thinking beyond mineral supply chains > 4.1.2. Joint ventures: Toyota and Tesla with Panasonic
What the sources say
- Not checked yetcites [185]
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In the paper
“Battery manufacturers in the LiB GPN can be categorized into two broad groups.”
§ Towards the lithium-ion battery production network: Thinking beyond mineral supply chains > 4.1. Battery manufacturing: established and emerging producers, and the growing role of automotive OEMs as lead firms
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In the paper
“These projects emerge with the support of public-private funding, such as that promoted by the European Battery Alliance in which EU member state budgets are channelled towards Important Projects of Common European Interest (IPCEI).”
§ Towards the lithium-ion battery production network: Thinking beyond mineral supply chains > 4.1.1. Long-term contracts and direct investment by OEMs in battery production
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In the paper
“They also offer a product portfolio featuring multiple cell formats (e.g.pouch, cylindrical and prismatic) and targeting a range of OEM manufacturers within and beyond EVs, including heavy duty mining and construction, aviation (see Northvolt, Freyr) and ESS.”
§ Towards the lithium-ion battery production network: Thinking beyond mineral supply chains > 4.1.1. Long-term contracts and direct investment by OEMs in battery production
plain- Asserted: passes — The authors put it forward as true.
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In the paper
“Panasonic invested in Tesla when it went public in 2010, and the two companies entered into a US$ 5 billion gigafactory joint venture in 2014 to manufacture and supply NCA cells [182,183].”
§ Towards the lithium-ion battery production network: Thinking beyond mineral supply chains > 4.1.2. Joint ventures: Toyota and Tesla with Panasonic
What the sources say
- Not checked yetcites [182]
- Not checked yetcites [183]
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In the paper
“In the case of Panasonic, LG, Samsung and CATL, LiB manufacturing developed initially through the lead position of these firms in consumer electronics, and over time it has become a specialised business division of these firms.”
§ Towards the lithium-ion battery production network: Thinking beyond mineral supply chains > 4.1. Battery manufacturing: established and emerging producers, and the growing role of automotive OEMs as lead firms
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In the paper
“Panasonic was a commercial pioneer of LiB technology in portable electronics and an early entrant to the EV market: a 1996 agreement saw the company supply lithium-ion and nickel-metal hydride batteries to Toyota, including the company's flagship Prius [181].”
§ Towards the lithium-ion battery production network: Thinking beyond mineral supply chains > 4.1.2. Joint ventures: Toyota and Tesla with Panasonic
What the sources say
- Not checked yetcites [181]
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In the paper
“In a similar way Finland is building on its existing mining industry (Terrafame, Keliber) as both the largest nickel producer in the EU and the only EU member state with industrial scale cobalt production [197].”
§ Towards the lithium-ion battery production network: Thinking beyond mineral supply chains > 4.2.2. States as facilitators, regulators and producers -mineral occurrence and ownership
What the sources say
- Not checked yetcites [197] source
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In the paper
“Across both these broad categories of battery manufacturers we find automakers increasingly acting as lead firms in battery production, with the investment strategies of automakers driving production location, battery chemistry and rate of production, and co-ordinating network organisation (Table 4).”
§ Towards the lithium-ion battery production network: Thinking beyond mineral supply chains > 4.1. Battery manufacturing: established and emerging producers, and the growing role of automotive OEMs as lead firms
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In the paper
“For the Tesla-Panasonic joint venture, for example, Nevada provided tax exemptions and reduced energy costs along with highway development.”
§ Towards the lithium-ion battery production network: Thinking beyond mineral supply chains > 4.2.3. States as facilitators, regulators and buyers -provisioning of incentivizing infrastructures
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In the paper
“BYD's route, by contrast, is somewhat the reverse as its early development in the late 1990s focused on specialised rechargeable battery technology (to substitute Japanese imports), growing to supply half the world's mobile phone batteries.It has subsequently built on this specialist manufacturing expertise to develop a lead role in downstream transport applications of battery technology.”
§ Towards the lithium-ion battery production network: Thinking beyond mineral supply chains > 4.1. Battery manufacturing: established and emerging producers, and the growing role of automotive OEMs as lead firms
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In the paper
“Indonesia, for example, banned nickel ore exports in early 2020, and acquired shares in mineral-material production with the long-term aim of EV production.”
§ Towards the lithium-ion battery production network: Thinking beyond mineral supply chains > 4.2.2. States as facilitators, regulators and producers -mineral occurrence and ownership
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In the paper
“Organisationally this is taking several different forms (Table 4), including long term contracts between automotive OEMs and battery cell producers to secure access to battery cells; direct investment by automanufacturers in battery production without a joint venture partner; and joint ventures based on shared investment by automotive OEMs and battery cell producers to pool and manage risk.”
§ Towards the lithium-ion battery production network: Thinking beyond mineral supply chains > 4.1. Battery manufacturing: established and emerging producers, and the growing role of automotive OEMs as lead firms
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In the paper
“The second is a more diverse group of emerging battery producers (Table 4).This group consists of (i) joint ventures, into which automotive OEMs are entering with established battery producers, primarily through agreements around cell and battery development (and often as an evolution of previous agreements around battery assembly).30 Examples include Toyota with Panasonic (Prime Planet Energy and”
§ Towards the lithium-ion battery production network: Thinking beyond mineral supply chains > 4.1. Battery manufacturing: established and emerging producers, and the growing role of automotive OEMs as lead firms
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In the paper
“A consortium of four state-owned firms -the Indonesia Battery Corporation (IBC) -has been established to guide co-operation between battery developers and investors, following LG's announcement of developing an integrated battery industry in Indonesia.”
§ Towards the lithium-ion battery production network: Thinking beyond mineral supply chains > 4.2.2. States as facilitators, regulators and producers -mineral occurrence and ownership
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In the paper
“Acting increasingly like a battery manufacturer, Tesla has scaled up its battery sales and installed grid-scale ESS systems in Puerto Rico, California, Texas 37 and Australia where, in collaboration with a French renewable power company (Neoen), Tesla constructed the 100 MW Hornsdale Power Reserve (South Australia) and the 300 MW Victorian Big Battery at Moorabool [184].”
§ Towards the lithium-ion battery production network: Thinking beyond mineral supply chains > 4.1.2. Joint ventures: Toyota and Tesla with Panasonic
What the sources say
- Not checked yetcites [184]
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In the paper
“Northvolt, for example, has in-house production plans that range upstream to active material production (including some prior metal chemical production) and downstream to recycling, while Verkor's inhouse production plans extend upstream to electrode and cell assembly.”
§ Towards the lithium-ion battery production network: Thinking beyond mineral supply chains > 4.3.1. Vertical integration
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In the paper
“Also, states and municipalities are reviewing public transport infrastructure for electrification, with the state in some instances becoming a 'buyer' of electric buses.”
§ Towards the lithium-ion battery production network: Thinking beyond mineral supply chains > 4.2.3. States as facilitators, regulators and buyers -provisioning of incentivizing infrastructures
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The paper states this without a source or data behind it here, so there is nothing to check it against. The quote shows it is in the paper.
In the paper
“These specify a level of local content, measured as a percentage of the final value of the vehicle, and currently allow up to 70% of the value of the car to be sourced from outside the EU.From January 2024, however, this will reduce to 50% andas batteries can be up to 40% of the final value of the carthis will effectively require automakers to source batteries from within the EU.”
§ Towards the lithium-ion battery production network: Thinking beyond mineral supply chains > 4.3.2. Deepening significance of the state as a regulatory driver, especially around trade and material sourcing
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In the paper
“To facilitate these ambitions, Nio has signed a strategic collaboration with Chinese oil company Sinopec to build a network of 5000 charging and swapping stations for EV batteries, with the first opening in Beijing in 2021 [212].”
§ Towards the lithium-ion battery production network: Thinking beyond mineral supply chains > 4.3.3. Emerging business models
What the sources say
- Not checked yetcites [212]
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In the paper
“For example, the large conglomerate POSCO has attracted leading producers of lithium (such as Pilbara Minerals) to South Korea to produce lithium hydroxide and lithium carbonate; and in Australia a 'Lithium Valley' is emerging centred on lithium hydroxide refining projects of Tianqi Lithium, SQM, and Albemarle in the Kwinana industrial zone close to Perth.”
§ Towards the lithium-ion battery production network: Thinking beyond mineral supply chains > 4.3.1. Vertical integration
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In the paper
“Nio, an EV manufacturer sometimes described as the 'Tesla of China', is rolling out BaaS under its Nio-Power business unit, offering both charging and battery swapping to EV owners.”
§ Towards the lithium-ion battery production network: Thinking beyond mineral supply chains > 4.3.3. Emerging business models
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The paper states this without a source or data behind it here, so there is nothing to check it against. The quote shows it is in the paper.
In the paper
“China too has examples of BaaSincluding cell and battery giant CATL -and the country's new NEV policy supports expansion of this approach.”
§ Towards the lithium-ion battery production network: Thinking beyond mineral supply chains > 4.3.3. Emerging business models
plaindirect- Asserted: passes — The authors put it forward as true.
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Probably not a substantial claim. The paper’s conclusions may not depend on it. The paper may give no reason why it holds. It may state two separate claims as one.
The paper states this without a source or data behind it here, so there is nothing to check it against. The quote shows it is in the paper.
In the paper
“Epiroc, a leading Swedish supplier of rock excavation equipment, is entering the 'energy storage as a service' business segment through provision of the first BaaS in mining operations, serving Brazilian mining firm Vale at its two Canadian mines.Epiroc owns and monitors the rechargeable batteries used by Vale, replacing and updating them as required.”
§ Towards the lithium-ion battery production network: Thinking beyond mineral supply chains > 4.3.3. Emerging business models
plain- Asserted: passes — The authors put it forward as true.
- Checkable: passes — It can be checked against evidence.
- Load-bearing: unclear — It is unclear whether the paper’s conclusions depend on it.
- Based: passes — The paper gives a reason why it holds.
It may state two separate claims as one.
The paper states this without a source or data behind it here, so there is nothing to check it against. The quote shows it is in the paper.
In the paper
“Similarly in the US, Biden's Infrastructure Bill sought to commit $174 billion towards creating a domestic supply chain for batteries and EVs.”
§ Towards the lithium-ion battery production network: Thinking beyond mineral supply chains > 4.3.2. Deepening significance of the state as a regulatory driver, especially around trade and material sourcing
plain- Asserted: passes — The authors put it forward as true.
- Checkable: passes — It can be checked against evidence.
- Load-bearing: fails — The paper’s conclusions may not depend on it.
- Based: passes — The paper gives a reason why it holds.
Probably not a substantial claim. The paper’s conclusions may not depend on it.
In the paper
“There are specific implications for the UK, post-Brexit, as 'rules of origin' requirements negotiated under the EU-UK Trade and Cooperation Agreement to secure tariff and quota free trade mean EVs must have 55% UK/EU content by 2027, and must also have an originating battery pack [207].”
§ Towards the lithium-ion battery production network: Thinking beyond mineral supply chains > 4.3.2. Deepening significance of the state as a regulatory driver, especially around trade and material sourcing
What the sources say
- Not checked yetcites [207]
plaindirect- Asserted: passes — The authors put it forward as true.
- Checkable: passes — It can be checked against evidence.
- Load-bearing: passes — The paper’s conclusions depend on it.
- Based: passes — The paper gives a reason why it holds.
It may state two separate claims as one.
The paper states this without a source or data behind it here, so there is nothing to check it against. The quote shows it is in the paper.
In the paper
“The resulting US Infrastructure Investment and Jobs Act (2021) allocated around $15 billion to the development of batteries and a national EV charging infrastructure, and the Biden Administration has subsequently used its Presidential powers (via the Defense Production Act) to bolster domestic mining and mineral processing for battery minerals.”
§ Towards the lithium-ion battery production network: Thinking beyond mineral supply chains > 4.3.2. Deepening significance of the state as a regulatory driver, especially around trade and material sourcing
plain- Asserted: passes — The authors put it forward as true.
- Checkable: passes — It can be checked against evidence.
- Load-bearing: passes — The paper’s conclusions depend on it.
- Based: passes — The paper gives a reason why it holds.
It may state two separate claims as one.
The paper states this without a source or data behind it here, so there is nothing to check it against. The quote shows it is in the paper.
In the paper
“Vertical integration is frequently associated with logistical efforts to shorten supply lines, involving the co-location of anode, cathode, cell and battery production close to automotive OEM hubs.”
§ Towards the lithium-ion battery production network: Thinking beyond mineral supply chains > 4.3.1. Vertical integration
plaincorrelational- Asserted: passes — The authors put it forward as true.
- Checkable: passes — It can be checked against evidence.
- Load-bearing: fails — The paper’s conclusions may not depend on it.
- Based: fails — The paper may give no reason why it holds.
Probably not a substantial claim. The paper’s conclusions may not depend on it. The paper may give no reason why it holds.
None of the sources cited for this claim have been checked yet.
In the paper
“In addition to competitive positioning as battery production zones, 25 cities are now 'EV capitals' with over 50,000 passenger EV registrations.45 This means over 10% of the global EV fleet (approx.10 million vehicles) is concentrated in just 25 city-regions, and explains why battery development has prioritized cost and faster charging for suburban cars, while extending drive range for family and”
§ Towards the lithium-ion battery production network: Thinking beyond mineral supply chains > 4.2.3. States as facilitators, regulators and buyers -provisioning of incentivizing infrastructures
plaindirect- Asserted: passes — The authors put it forward as true.
- Checkable: passes — It can be checked against evidence.
- Load-bearing: unclear — It is unclear whether the paper’s conclusions depend on it.
- Based: passes — The paper gives a reason why it holds.
It may state two separate claims as one.
In the paper
“An interesting example of vertical integration here is Lithium Australia, which aims to create a circular battery economy via operations spanning the lithium supply chain from extraction and refining, through cathode manufacturing to recycling of end-of-life batteries [205].”
§ Towards the lithium-ion battery production network: Thinking beyond mineral supply chains > 4.3.1. Vertical integration
What the sources say
- Not checked yetcites [205]
plainSingle case- Asserted: passes — The authors put it forward as true.
- Checkable: passes — It can be checked against evidence.
- Load-bearing: fails — The paper’s conclusions may not depend on it.
- Based: passes — The paper gives a reason why it holds.
Probably not a substantial claim. The paper’s conclusions may not depend on it.
The paper states this without a source or data behind it here, so there is nothing to check it against. The quote shows it is in the paper.
In the paper
“Europe is currently a core geography for BaaS, particularly in Norway, Sweden and the Netherlands where EV adoption rates are high.”
§ Towards the lithium-ion battery production network: Thinking beyond mineral supply chains > 4.3.3. Emerging business models
plaincorrelational- Asserted: passes — The authors put it forward as true.
- Checkable: passes — It can be checked against evidence.
- Load-bearing: fails — The paper’s conclusions may not depend on it.
- Based: fails — The paper may give no reason why it holds.
Probably not a substantial claim. The paper’s conclusions may not depend on it. The paper may give no reason why it holds.
In the paper
“Tesla is adopting elements of this strategy, having announced plans to manufacture cells (currently sourced from Panasonic, LG and CATL and assembled by Tesla into batteries) and develop its own lithium mine in Nevada (Verpraet 2020).”
§ Towards the lithium-ion battery production network: Thinking beyond mineral supply chains > 4.3.1. Vertical integration
What the sources say
- Not checked yetcites Verpraet 2020
plain- Asserted: passes — The authors put it forward as true.
- Checkable: passes — It can be checked against evidence.
- Load-bearing: unclear — It is unclear whether the paper’s conclusions depend on it.
- Based: passes — The paper gives a reason why it holds.
It may state two separate claims as one.
The paper states this without a source or data behind it here, so there is nothing to check it against. The quote shows it is in the paper.
In the paper
“Northvolt 1's inhouse Revolt recycling project, for example, aims to take back 100% of batteries at end-of-life and secure 50% recycled material in all new battery cells by 2030.”
§ Towards the lithium-ion battery production network: Thinking beyond mineral supply chains > 4.3.2. Deepening significance of the state as a regulatory driver, especially around trade and material sourcing
plain- Asserted: passes — The authors put it forward as true.
- Checkable: passes — It can be checked against evidence.
- Load-bearing: fails — The paper’s conclusions may not depend on it.
- Based: passes — The paper gives a reason why it holds.
Probably not a substantial claim. The paper’s conclusions may not depend on it. It may state two separate claims as one.
In the paper
“The most developed example of vertical integration is BYD (Table 4), which not only manufactures a diverse range of electric cars, buses, trucks and energy storage solutions but also makes their most valuable components (battery cells and transistors) and owns upstream material extraction and refining [206].”
§ Towards the lithium-ion battery production network: Thinking beyond mineral supply chains > 4.3.1. Vertical integration
What the sources say
- Not checked yetcites [206]
plainSingle case- Asserted: passes — The authors put it forward as true.
- Checkable: passes — It can be checked against evidence.
- Load-bearing: unclear — It is unclear whether the paper’s conclusions depend on it.
- Based: passes — The paper gives a reason why it holds.
It may state two separate claims as one.
The paper states this without a source or data behind it here, so there is nothing to check it against. The quote shows it is in the paper.
In the paper
“The multiple stages of production and assembly involved in battery production may be geographically dispersed and linked by material flows, yet they are also organisationally integrated across multiple (and often competing) states in ways that need to be better understood.”
§ Towards the lithium-ion battery production network: Thinking beyond mineral supply chains > 5. Conclusion
hedgedcorrelational- Asserted: passes — The authors put it forward as true.
- Checkable: passes — It can be checked against evidence.
- Load-bearing: passes — The paper’s conclusions depend on it.
- Based: fails — The paper may give no reason why it holds.
Probably not a substantial claim. The paper may give no reason why it holds. It may state two separate claims as one.
- Rests on an assumption: The relations and dynamics that make up the transnational economies of battery production are not well understood.
The paper states this without a source or data behind it here, so there is nothing to check it against. The quote shows it is in the paper.
In the paper
“Nissan and Sumitomo, for example, are repurposing EV batteries for street lighting and large-scale ESS in Japan; while Nissan has collaborated in an ESS for energy management in the Netherlands, repurposing battery packs from Nissan's LEAF EV to deliver back-up power and grid stabilization services at the Amsterdam Arena.”
§ Towards the lithium-ion battery production network: Thinking beyond mineral supply chains > 4.3.3. Emerging business models
plain- Asserted: passes — The authors put it forward as true.
- Checkable: passes — It can be checked against evidence.
- Load-bearing: unclear — It is unclear whether the paper’s conclusions depend on it.
- Based: passes — The paper gives a reason why it holds.
It may state two separate claims as one.
The paper states this without a source or data behind it here, so there is nothing to check it against. The quote shows it is in the paper.
In the paper
“They pay only limited attention to organisational and geographical relations, and they overlook critical areas of intersection between battery production and original equipment manufacturing (OEM) 1 for automotive and power sectors.”
§ Towards the lithium-ion battery production network: Thinking beyond mineral supply chains > 1. Introduction
plain- Asserted: passes — The authors put it forward as true.
- Checkable: passes — It can be checked against evidence.
- Load-bearing: passes — The paper’s conclusions depend on it.
- Based: passes — The paper gives a reason why it holds.
It may state two separate claims as one.
A conclusion the paper draws from its own results — it cites no other source for it, so there is none to check. The quote shows it is in the paper.
In the paper
“Our GPN approach is well-adapted for understanding how the business of battery production is increasingly influenced by actors and strategies linked to automobile manufacturing, and to a range of 'infrastructural' actors associated with construction, electric utilities and fossil fuel retailing.”
§ Towards the lithium-ion battery production network: Thinking beyond mineral supply chains > 1. Introduction
boostedcorrelational- Asserted: passes — The authors put it forward as true.
- Checkable: fails — It may be too vague to check against evidence.
- Load-bearing: passes — The paper’s conclusions depend on it.
- Based: fails — The paper may give no reason why it holds.
Probably not a substantial claim. It may be too vague to check against evidence. The paper may give no reason why it holds.
None of the sources cited for this claim have been checked yet.
In the paper
“There are now policy initiatives in the US and the EU focussed explicitly on battery minerals alongside other materials for a low carbon energy transition, that aim to create alternative supply chains and establish technological advantage [151,48].”
§ Towards the lithium-ion battery production network: Thinking beyond mineral supply chains > 3.1. Battery mineral supply chains
What the sources say
- Not checked yetcites [151] source
- Not checked yetcites [48]
plaindirect- Asserted: passes — The authors put it forward as true.
- Checkable: passes — It can be checked against evidence.
- Load-bearing: unclear — It is unclear whether the paper’s conclusions depend on it.
- Based: passes — The paper gives a reason why it holds.
It may state two separate claims as one.
In the paper
“China's dominant market share in refining mineral products -and the country's efforts to offset raw material supply risks by investing in overseas sources of supply (see [150]) have raised concern about resource availability.”
§ Towards the lithium-ion battery production network: Thinking beyond mineral supply chains > 3.1. Battery mineral supply chains
What the sources say
- Not checked yetcites [150] source
plaindirect- Asserted: passes — The authors put it forward as true.
- Checkable: passes — It can be checked against evidence.
- Load-bearing: unclear — It is unclear whether the paper’s conclusions depend on it.
- Based: passes — The paper gives a reason why it holds.
It may state two separate claims as one.
A conclusion the paper draws from its own results — it cites no other source for it, so there is none to check. The quote shows it is in the paper.
In the paper
“As we have seen, however, the 'supply side' focus in this work means that issues of physical material supply dominate and key organisational elements of demand and the role of end-use actors in restructuring supply chains are often overlooked.”
§ Towards the lithium-ion battery production network: Thinking beyond mineral supply chains > 3.2. The geopolitical consequences of expanding battery production: the value of a GPN approach
plaindirect- Asserted: passes — The authors put it forward as true.
- Checkable: passes — It can be checked against evidence.
- Load-bearing: passes — The paper’s conclusions depend on it.
- Based: passes — The paper gives a reason why it holds.
Probably not a substantial claim. It may state two separate claims as one.
The paper states this without a source or data behind it here, so there is nothing to check it against. The quote shows it is in the paper.
In the paper
“We highlight how performance requirements for the automotive sector have increasingly shaped battery chemistry and technological development, and distinguish four geographies of production and ownership (Tables 123).”
§ Towards the lithium-ion battery production network: Thinking beyond mineral supply chains > 2. Making batteries: an organisationally integrated, yet geographically dispersed assembly process
plaindirect- Asserted: passes — The authors put it forward as true.
- Checkable: passes — It can be checked against evidence.
- Load-bearing: fails — The paper’s conclusions may not depend on it.
- Based: fails — The paper may give no reason why it holds.
Probably not a substantial claim. The paper’s conclusions may not depend on it. The paper may give no reason why it holds.
In the paper
“There are advantages to co-locating electrode production with cell manufacture, so this is “the first step in the process where market pull begins to significantly favor co-location with the end-product” [48, p. 94].”
§ Towards the lithium-ion battery production network: Thinking beyond mineral supply chains > 2.3. Supplying gigafactories: geographies of electrode production, material refining and material supply
What the sources say
- Not checked yetcites [48]
plaindirect- Asserted: passes — The authors put it forward as true.
- Checkable: passes — It can be checked against evidence.
- Load-bearing: unclear — It is unclear whether the paper’s conclusions depend on it.
- Based: passes — The paper gives a reason why it holds.
It may state two separate claims as one.
In the paper
“Recent work on the geopolitics of energy system transformation acknowledges some of the broader geopolitical and geo-economic consequences of decarbonisation and how, as roles for renewable power generation and electrification increase, a new 'energy order' may emerge from the ubiquity, flow character and lower energy density of renewables relative to fossil fuels [147,141,[152][153][154].”
§ Towards the lithium-ion battery production network: Thinking beyond mineral supply chains > 3.2. The geopolitical consequences of expanding battery production: the value of a GPN approach
What the sources say
- Not checked yetcites [147,141,[152][153][154]
hedgedconditional- Asserted: passes — The authors put it forward as true.
- Checkable: passes — It can be checked against evidence.
- Load-bearing: fails — The paper’s conclusions may not depend on it.
- Based: passes — The paper gives a reason why it holds.
Probably not a substantial claim. The paper’s conclusions may not depend on it.
A conclusion the paper draws from its own results — it cites no other source for it, so there is none to check. The quote shows it is in the paper.
In the paper
“The different stages of production are connected materially by physical trade of materials and components, and financially by cross-border and cross-sectoral investment flows.”
§ Towards the lithium-ion battery production network: Thinking beyond mineral supply chains > 2.3. Supplying gigafactories: geographies of electrode production, material refining and material supply
plaincorrelational- Asserted: passes — The authors put it forward as true.
- Checkable: passes — It can be checked against evidence.
- Load-bearing: passes — The paper’s conclusions depend on it.
- Based: passes — The paper gives a reason why it holds.
It may state two separate claims as one.
In the paper
“European battery production capacity is expected to increase 13-fold between 2020 and 2025 (from 28 to 368 GWh) and anticipated to outstrip China as the largest EV market, with battery production growing from 6% to around 22% of global supply (and reducing China to 65% of global production) [47].”
§ Towards the lithium-ion battery production network: Thinking beyond mineral supply chains > 2.2. Geographies of cell and battery manufacturing
What the sources say
- Not checked yetcites [47]
hedgeddirect- Asserted: passes — The authors put it forward as true.
- Checkable: passes — It can be checked against evidence.
- Load-bearing: unclear — It is unclear whether the paper’s conclusions depend on it.
- Based: passes — The paper gives a reason why it holds.
It may state two separate claims as one.
In the paper
“Batteries are the largest component of lithium demand, with this share expected to increase to around 95% of total lithium demand by 2030 [218].”
§ Towards the lithium-ion battery production network: Thinking beyond mineral supply chains > 3.1. Battery mineral supply chains
What the sources say
- Not checked yetcites [218]
plaindirect- Asserted: passes — The authors put it forward as true.
- Checkable: passes — It can be checked against evidence.
- Load-bearing: fails — The paper’s conclusions may not depend on it.
- Based: passes — The paper gives a reason why it holds.
Probably not a substantial claim. The paper’s conclusions may not depend on it. It may state two separate claims as one.
In the paper
“Gigafactory growth is currently driven by automotive demand, with China and Europe expected to be the largest contributors where battery demand is linked to decarbonisation of road transport [47].”
§ Towards the lithium-ion battery production network: Thinking beyond mineral supply chains > 2.2. Geographies of cell and battery manufacturing
What the sources say
- Not checked yetcites [47]
plaindirect- Asserted: passes — The authors put it forward as true.
- Checkable: passes — It can be checked against evidence.
- Load-bearing: unclear — It is unclear whether the paper’s conclusions depend on it.
- Based: passes — The paper gives a reason why it holds.
It may state two separate claims as one.
The paper states this without a source or data behind it here, so there is nothing to check it against. The quote shows it is in the paper.
In the paper
“Finally, the upstream geography of raw material supply is to-date largely based on primary extraction rather than recycling, with these mined mineral raw materials originating from diverse geographies.”
§ Towards the lithium-ion battery production network: Thinking beyond mineral supply chains > 2.3. Supplying gigafactories: geographies of electrode production, material refining and material supply
plain- Asserted: passes — The authors put it forward as true.
- Checkable: passes — It can be checked against evidence.
- Load-bearing: unclear — It is unclear whether the paper’s conclusions depend on it.
- Based: passes — The paper gives a reason why it holds.
It may state two separate claims as one.
A conclusion the paper draws from its own results — it cites no other source for it, so there is none to check. The quote shows it is in the paper.
In the paper
“The geopolitical consequences of expanding battery production extend beyond security of mineral supply to the rapid deployment of gigafactories, and the advancing electrification of the energy and mobility infrastructures to meet decarbonisation targets.”
§ Towards the lithium-ion battery production network: Thinking beyond mineral supply chains > 3.2. The geopolitical consequences of expanding battery production: the value of a GPN approach
plaindirect- Asserted: passes — The authors put it forward as true.
- Checkable: passes — It can be checked against evidence.
- Load-bearing: passes — The paper’s conclusions depend on it.
- Based: passes — The paper gives a reason why it holds.
It may state two separate claims as one.
None of the sources cited for this claim have been checked yet.
In the paper
“The 'pipeline' to 2030 (i.e.plants currently producing, under-construction or planned) now runs to over 280 with a combined capacity of around 6000 GWh.[46,222].”
§ Towards the lithium-ion battery production network: Thinking beyond mineral supply chains > 2.2. Geographies of cell and battery manufacturing
What the sources say
- Not checked yetcites [46]
- Not checked yetcites [222]
plain- Asserted: passes — The authors put it forward as true.
- Checkable: passes — It can be checked against evidence.
- Load-bearing: unclear — It is unclear whether the paper’s conclusions depend on it.
- Based: passes — The paper gives a reason why it holds.
It may state two separate claims as one.
In the paper
“South Korea (5% of global production) and Japan (4% of global production) are home to several lead firms in the battery sector [34], such as LG (22% market share), Panasonic (19% market share), Toshiba, SK Innovation (SKI), or Samsung SDI (Samsung).”
§ Towards the lithium-ion battery production network: Thinking beyond mineral supply chains > 2.2. Geographies of cell and battery manufacturing
What the sources say
- Not checked yetcites [34]
plain- Asserted: passes — The authors put it forward as true.
- Checkable: passes — It can be checked against evidence.
- Load-bearing: unclear — It is unclear whether the paper’s conclusions depend on it.
- Based: passes — The paper gives a reason why it holds.
It may state two separate claims as one.
In the paper
“It is in this context that there have been recent calls for a 'whole systems' approach to understanding the geopolitics of energy system transformation [147].”
§ Towards the lithium-ion battery production network: Thinking beyond mineral supply chains > 3.2. The geopolitical consequences of expanding battery production: the value of a GPN approach
What the sources say
- Not checked yetcites [147] source
plain- Asserted: passes — The authors put it forward as true.
- Checkable: passes — It can be checked against evidence.
- Load-bearing: passes — The paper’s conclusions depend on it.
- Based: passes — The paper gives a reason why it holds.
Probably not a substantial claim.
In the paper
“Projections of sharp mineral material demand create security of supply concerns and provoke geopolitical competition for the control over parts of mineral supply chains [147][148][149].”
§ Towards the lithium-ion battery production network: Thinking beyond mineral supply chains > 3.1. Battery mineral supply chains
What the sources say
- Not checked yetcites [147][148][149]
plaindirect- Asserted: passes — The authors put it forward as true.
- Checkable: passes — It can be checked against evidence.
- Load-bearing: unclear — It is unclear whether the paper’s conclusions depend on it.
- Based: passes — The paper gives a reason why it holds.
It may state two separate claims as one.
None of the sources cited for this claim have been checked yet.
In the paper
“There is a high degree of geographical concentration in mining: except for nickel, over 50% of production for each of these mineral raw materials comes from two countries and over two thirds of cobalt are sourced from the DRC.”
§ Towards the lithium-ion battery production network: Thinking beyond mineral supply chains > 2.3. Supplying gigafactories: geographies of electrode production, material refining and material supply
plain- Asserted: passes — The authors put it forward as true.
- Checkable: passes — It can be checked against evidence.
- Load-bearing: unclear — It is unclear whether the paper’s conclusions depend on it.
- Based: passes — The paper gives a reason why it holds.
It may state two separate claims as one.
In the paper
“Battery production takes place in large-scale facilities ('gigafactories') in which individual cells are fabricated, combined into battery modules and (sometimes) assembled as packs for a particular end user [44].”
§ Towards the lithium-ion battery production network: Thinking beyond mineral supply chains > 2.2. Geographies of cell and battery manufacturing
What the sources say
- Not checked yetcites [44]
plain- Asserted: passes — The authors put it forward as true.
- Checkable: passes — It can be checked against evidence.
- Load-bearing: fails — The paper’s conclusions may not depend on it.
- Based: passes — The paper gives a reason why it holds.
Probably not a substantial claim. The paper’s conclusions may not depend on it.
None of the sources cited for this claim have been checked yet.
In the paper
“Stepping back, the work we have briefly reviewed shows how decarbonisation, electrification and growing demand for energy storage will augment total material demand even while fossil fuel use may decline [1,2].”
§ Towards the lithium-ion battery production network: Thinking beyond mineral supply chains > 3.1. Battery mineral supply chains
hedgeddirect- Asserted: passes — The authors put it forward as true.
- Checkable: passes — It can be checked against evidence.
- Load-bearing: passes — The paper’s conclusions depend on it.
- Based: passes — The paper gives a reason why it holds.
It may state two separate claims as one.
A conclusion the paper draws from its own results — it cites no other source for it, so there is none to check. The quote shows it is in the paper.
In the paper
“In this section we have shown how battery manufacturing is a classic 'global' assembly process that is organisationally and geographically distributed.”
§ Towards the lithium-ion battery production network: Thinking beyond mineral supply chains > 2.3. Supplying gigafactories: geographies of electrode production, material refining and material supply
boosted- Asserted: passes — The authors put it forward as true.
- Checkable: passes — It can be checked against evidence.
- Load-bearing: passes — The paper’s conclusions depend on it.
- Based: passes — The paper gives a reason why it holds.
It may state two separate claims as one.
A conclusion the paper draws from its own results — it cites no other source for it, so there is none to check. The quote shows it is in the paper.
In the paper
“These product-service portfolios allow for several different governance structures to evolve in anticipation of future JVs with multiple automotive OEMs around the development of battery chemistry (e.g.Northvolt, VW and Volvo), and contract manufacturing for customers in consumer electronics and ESS (e.g.Northvolt and Lingonberry cylindrical cells and prismatic battery modules).”
§ Towards the lithium-ion battery production network: Thinking beyond mineral supply chains > 4.1.1. Long-term contracts and direct investment by OEMs in battery production
plaindirect- Asserted: passes — The authors put it forward as true.
- Checkable: passes — It can be checked against evidence.
- Load-bearing: fails — The paper’s conclusions may not depend on it.
- Based: passes — The paper gives a reason why it holds.
Probably not a substantial claim. The paper’s conclusions may not depend on it.
A conclusion the paper draws from its own results — it cites no other source for it, so there is none to check. The quote shows it is in the paper.
In the paper
“In this section we discuss how organisational ties between automotive OEMs and battery producers are a key structure in the current LiB production network and an influence on its geographies.”
§ Towards the lithium-ion battery production network: Thinking beyond mineral supply chains > 4.1. Battery manufacturing: established and emerging producers, and the growing role of automotive OEMs as lead firms
plaindirect- Asserted: passes — The authors put it forward as true.
- Checkable: passes — It can be checked against evidence.
- Load-bearing: passes — The paper’s conclusions depend on it.
- Based: passes — The paper gives a reason why it holds.
It may state two separate claims as one.
In the paper
“Significant portions of the energy storage market are 'political markets' in the sense that supranational institutions have designed climate scenarios [186][187][188][189][190], and state and local governments have implemented decarbonisation policies -acting as facilitator and regulatorthat create a demand for mobile and, to a lesser extent, stationary energy storage.”
§ Towards the lithium-ion battery production network: Thinking beyond mineral supply chains > 4.2.1. States as facilitators and regulators -climate policy
What the sources say
- Not checked yetcites [186][187][188][189][190]
plaindirect- Asserted: passes — The authors put it forward as true.
- Checkable: passes — It can be checked against evidence.
- Load-bearing: passes — The paper’s conclusions depend on it.
- Based: passes — The paper gives a reason why it holds.
It may state two separate claims as one.
None of the sources cited for this claim have been checked yet.
In the paper
“While GPN has yet to be applied to the battery sector, it has been used in the context of upstream lithium extraction.”
§ Towards the lithium-ion battery production network: Thinking beyond mineral supply chains > 3.2. The geopolitical consequences of expanding battery production: the value of a GPN approach
plain- Asserted: passes — The authors put it forward as true.
- Checkable: passes — It can be checked against evidence.
- Load-bearing: unclear — It is unclear whether the paper’s conclusions depend on it.
- Based: passes — The paper gives a reason why it holds.
It may state two separate claims as one.
A conclusion the paper draws from its own results — it cites no other source for it, so there is none to check. The quote shows it is in the paper.
In the paper
“We show how state actions facilitated by the Green (New) Deal (US and EU) and net zero policiesunderpin the growth of battery markets and, in some instances, seek to regionalise battery production networks.”
§ Towards the lithium-ion battery production network: Thinking beyond mineral supply chains > 4.2. The Role of (Macro-Regional) States: regionalising battery production networks
plaindirect- Asserted: passes — The authors put it forward as true.
- Checkable: passes — It can be checked against evidence.
- Load-bearing: passes — The paper’s conclusions depend on it.
- Based: unclear — It is unclear why the paper says it holds.
It may state two separate claims as one.
A conclusion the paper draws from its own results — it cites no other source for it, so there is none to check. The quote shows it is in the paper.
In the paper
“Such distinctions are particularly apposite in the context of the LiB production network which, as we show in Section 4, is strongly shaped by state action: to facilitate the growth of mobile and stationary energy storage markets (e.g.petrol and diesel engine phase outs, EV uptake); regulate investment and trade (e.g.local supply chain obligations for foreign investors, trade policy); and act as a”
§ Towards the lithium-ion battery production network: Thinking beyond mineral supply chains > 3.2. The geopolitical consequences of expanding battery production: the value of a GPN approach
boosteddirect- Asserted: passes — The authors put it forward as true.
- Checkable: passes — It can be checked against evidence.
- Load-bearing: passes — The paper’s conclusions depend on it.
- Based: passes — The paper gives a reason why it holds.
It may state two separate claims as one.
A conclusion the paper draws from its own results — it cites no other source for it, so there is none to check. The quote shows it is in the paper.
In the paper
“This internationalisation of state capital highlights the growing role of the 'EU macro-regional state' in shaping the battery production network, and how its role extends from facilitator and regulator to financing support for new production.”
§ Towards the lithium-ion battery production network: Thinking beyond mineral supply chains > 4.1.1. Long-term contracts and direct investment by OEMs in battery production
plaindirect- Asserted: passes — The authors put it forward as true.
- Checkable: passes — It can be checked against evidence.
- Load-bearing: passes — The paper’s conclusions depend on it.
- Based: passes — The paper gives a reason why it holds.
It may state two separate claims as one.
A conclusion the paper draws from its own results — it cites no other source for it, so there is none to check. The quote shows it is in the paper.
In the paper
“However, battery manufacturing lies outside the skill set of traditional auto-manufacturers, and many of their traditional strategies for controlling outsourced production in the context of ICE vehiclesdual sourcing, cost competition, etc. -are less effective when it comes to EVs, as the battery accounts for a much larger proportion of the total cost of an EV vehicle than the engine in an ICE”
§ Towards the lithium-ion battery production network: Thinking beyond mineral supply chains > 4.1. Battery manufacturing: established and emerging producers, and the growing role of automotive OEMs as lead firms
plaindirect- Asserted: passes — The authors put it forward as true.
- Checkable: passes — It can be checked against evidence.
- Load-bearing: passes — The paper’s conclusions depend on it.
- Based: passes — The paper gives a reason why it holds.
It may state two separate claims as one. The quote only partly states this claim.
A conclusion the paper draws from its own results — it cites no other source for it, so there is none to check. The quote shows it is in the paper.
In the paper
“This strategy enables OEMs to manage technological risk while allowing various pathways for IP development.”
§ Towards the lithium-ion battery production network: Thinking beyond mineral supply chains > 4.1.1. Long-term contracts and direct investment by OEMs in battery production
plaindirect- Asserted: passes — The authors put it forward as true.
- Checkable: passes — It can be checked against evidence.
- Load-bearing: unclear — It is unclear whether the paper’s conclusions depend on it.
- Based: passes — The paper gives a reason why it holds.
It may state two separate claims as one.
A conclusion the paper draws from its own results — it cites no other source for it, so there is none to check. The quote shows it is in the paper.
In the paper
“We highlight competitive dynamics around mobile and stationary energy storage that see automotive OEMs increasingly integrating with battery production, manufacturing both for electric mobility and ESS at grid, commercial and domestic scale (Fig. 2).”
§ Towards the lithium-ion battery production network: Thinking beyond mineral supply chains > 4.3. Emerging dynamics in the battery production network
plaincorrelational- Asserted: passes — The authors put it forward as true.
- Checkable: passes — It can be checked against evidence.
- Load-bearing: passes — The paper’s conclusions depend on it.
- Based: fails — The paper may give no reason why it holds.
Probably not a substantial claim. The paper may give no reason why it holds.
A conclusion the paper draws from its own results — it cites no other source for it, so there is none to check. The quote shows it is in the paper.
In the paper
“Leasing batteries, rather than selling them as part of the EV purchase, can spur EV uptake by reducing the sticker price for vehicle consumers, while also offering improved battery performance: battery swapping gives battery suppliers (as owners of leased batteries) access to extensive data on battery use and battery health, and access to a concentrated battery mineral source (for reuse, recycling”
§ Towards the lithium-ion battery production network: Thinking beyond mineral supply chains > 4.3.3. Emerging business models
plaindirect- Asserted: passes — The authors put it forward as true.
- Checkable: passes — It can be checked against evidence.
- Load-bearing: fails — The paper’s conclusions may not depend on it.
- Based: passes — The paper gives a reason why it holds.
Probably not a substantial claim. The paper’s conclusions may not depend on it. It may state two separate claims as one.
A conclusion the paper draws from its own results — it cites no other source for it, so there is none to check. The quote shows it is in the paper.
In the paper
“Trade rules are likely to be a significant shaper of the LiB production network over the next few years, and are particularly significant for the rapid growth of gigafactory capacity in Europe (see Section 2).”
§ Towards the lithium-ion battery production network: Thinking beyond mineral supply chains > 4.3.2. Deepening significance of the state as a regulatory driver, especially around trade and material sourcing
hedgedconditional- Asserted: passes — The authors put it forward as true.
- Checkable: passes — It can be checked against evidence.
- Load-bearing: passes — The paper’s conclusions depend on it.
- Based: passes — The paper gives a reason why it holds.
It may state two separate claims as one.
A conclusion the paper draws from its own results — it cites no other source for it, so there is none to check. The quote shows it is in the paper.
In the paper
“On their own and in combination, 'design for recycling' requirements and extended producer responsibility will influence upstream mineral sourcing decisions.”
§ Towards the lithium-ion battery production network: Thinking beyond mineral supply chains > 4.3.2. Deepening significance of the state as a regulatory driver, especially around trade and material sourcing
plaindirect- Asserted: passes — The authors put it forward as true.
- Checkable: passes — It can be checked against evidence.
- Load-bearing: passes — The paper’s conclusions depend on it.
- Based: fails — The paper may give no reason why it holds.
Probably not a substantial claim. The paper may give no reason why it holds.
A conclusion the paper draws from its own results — it cites no other source for it, so there is none to check. The quote shows it is in the paper.
In the paper
“Their overall effect is likely to be a shortening of supply chains and a regionalisation of production networks, as evidenced by Europe's accelerating efforts to establish a full domestic battery value chain.”
§ Towards the lithium-ion battery production network: Thinking beyond mineral supply chains > 4.3.2. Deepening significance of the state as a regulatory driver, especially around trade and material sourcing
hedgedconditional- Asserted: passes — The authors put it forward as true.
- Checkable: passes — It can be checked against evidence.
- Load-bearing: passes — The paper’s conclusions depend on it.
- Based: passes — The paper gives a reason why it holds.
It may state two separate claims as one.
A conclusion the paper draws from its own results — it cites no other source for it, so there is none to check. The quote shows it is in the paper.
In the paper
“Vertical integration allows lead firms to manage physical supply risks and commodity price volatility, reduce costs (thus freeing up cash) and optimise gigafactory assets by developing a suite of products.”
§ Towards the lithium-ion battery production network: Thinking beyond mineral supply chains > 4.3.1. Vertical integration
plaindirect- Asserted: passes — The authors put it forward as true.
- Checkable: passes — It can be checked against evidence.
- Load-bearing: unclear — It is unclear whether the paper’s conclusions depend on it.
- Based: passes — The paper gives a reason why it holds.
It may state two separate claims as one.
A conclusion the paper draws from its own results — it cites no other source for it, so there is none to check. The quote shows it is in the paper.
In the paper
“They will also encourage downstream integration of recycling with cell and battery manufacturing and, potentially, facilitate circular business models based on 'minerals as a service.'”
§ Towards the lithium-ion battery production network: Thinking beyond mineral supply chains > 4.3.2. Deepening significance of the state as a regulatory driver, especially around trade and material sourcing
hedgedconditional- Asserted: passes — The authors put it forward as true.
- Checkable: passes — It can be checked against evidence.
- Load-bearing: unclear — It is unclear whether the paper’s conclusions depend on it.
- Based: passes — The paper gives a reason why it holds.
It may state two separate claims as one.
In the paper
“Several lead firms based in Asia have long-standing vertically integrated supply chains, and some producers in North America and Europe are seeking to develop similar structures [204].”
§ Towards the lithium-ion battery production network: Thinking beyond mineral supply chains > 4.3.1. Vertical integration
What the sources say
- Not checked yetcites [204]
plain- Asserted: passes — The authors put it forward as true.
- Checkable: passes — It can be checked against evidence.
- Load-bearing: unclear — It is unclear whether the paper’s conclusions depend on it.
- Based: passes — The paper gives a reason why it holds.
It may state two separate claims as one.
In the paper
“For refiners, backward integration addresses supply concerns; and, for extractive companies, downstream integration with value-adding stages can improve returns and provide a reliable route to markets in cell fabrication [205].”
§ Towards the lithium-ion battery production network: Thinking beyond mineral supply chains > 4.3.1. Vertical integration
What the sources say
- Not checked yetcites [205]
plainconditional- Asserted: passes — The authors put it forward as true.
- Checkable: passes — It can be checked against evidence.
- Load-bearing: unclear — It is unclear whether the paper’s conclusions depend on it.
- Based: passes — The paper gives a reason why it holds.
It may state two separate claims as one.
A conclusion the paper draws from its own results — it cites no other source for it, so there is none to check. The quote shows it is in the paper.
In the paper
“Developing a product portfolio enables customization of battery production for different customers, while also creating opportunities for downstream integration (see Tesla in relation to electricity generation via its ESS products, for example).”
§ Towards the lithium-ion battery production network: Thinking beyond mineral supply chains > 4.3.1. Vertical integration
plaindirect- Asserted: passes — The authors put it forward as true.
- Checkable: passes — It can be checked against evidence.
- Load-bearing: fails — The paper’s conclusions may not depend on it.
- Based: passes — The paper gives a reason why it holds.
Probably not a substantial claim. The paper’s conclusions may not depend on it. It may state two separate claims as one.
A conclusion the paper draws from its own results — it cites no other source for it, so there is none to check. The quote shows it is in the paper.
In the paper
“Over time, the battery production network will be shaped by consolidation of 'battery as a service' (BaaS) business models (see Fig. 2, dynamics 4a and 4b).”
§ Towards the lithium-ion battery production network: Thinking beyond mineral supply chains > 4.3.3. Emerging business models
plaindirect- Asserted: passes — The authors put it forward as true.
- Checkable: passes — It can be checked against evidence.
- Load-bearing: fails — The paper’s conclusions may not depend on it.
- Based: fails — The paper may give no reason why it holds.
Probably not a substantial claim. The paper’s conclusions may not depend on it. The paper may give no reason why it holds.
A conclusion the paper draws from its own results — it cites no other source for it, so there is none to check. The quote shows it is in the paper.
In the paper
“To conclude, this paper has demonstrated the value of a GPN approach for understanding the geopolitical economy of energy system transformation.”
§ Towards the lithium-ion battery production network: Thinking beyond mineral supply chains > 5. Conclusion
boosteddirect- Asserted: passes — The authors put it forward as true.
- Checkable: fails — It may be too vague to check against evidence.
- Load-bearing: passes — The paper’s conclusions depend on it.
- Based: passes — The paper gives a reason why it holds.
Probably not a substantial claim. It may be too vague to check against evidence.
- Rests on an assumption: The relations and dynamics that make up the transnational economies of battery production are not well understood.
- Rests on an assumption: Until now there has been no systematic effort to think through the organisational and geographical structures of LiB production.
A conclusion the paper draws from its own results — it cites no other source for it, so there is none to check. The quote shows it is in the paper.
In the paper
“Nonetheless, we have shown empirically in this section how GPN's relational perspective can analyse the organisational platforms through which LiB production takes place; and identify how relations among the firms, states and other actors comprising these platforms influence the dynamic geographies of LiB production.”
§ Towards the lithium-ion battery production network: Thinking beyond mineral supply chains > 4.3.3. Emerging business models
boosteddirect- Asserted: passes — The authors put it forward as true.
- Checkable: passes — It can be checked against evidence.
- Load-bearing: passes — The paper’s conclusions depend on it.
- Based: passes — The paper gives a reason why it holds.
It may state two separate claims as one.
- Rests on an assumption: The relations and dynamics that make up the transnational economies of battery production are not well understood.
In the paper
“A net-zero target consistent with 1.5 degrees may require a five to six-fold increase in annual base metal production by 2050 (e.g.copper, nickel, aluminium), with demand for lithium projected to grow to over 100-times its current level under such a scenario [215, 186, p. 271].”
§ Towards the lithium-ion battery production network: Thinking beyond mineral supply chains > 5. Conclusion
What the sources say
- Not checked yetcites [215, 186, p. 271]
hedgedconditional- Asserted: passes — The authors put it forward as true.
- Checkable: passes — It can be checked against evidence.
- Load-bearing: passes — The paper’s conclusions depend on it.
- Based: passes — The paper gives a reason why it holds.
It may state two separate claims as one.
A conclusion the paper draws from its own results — it cites no other source for it, so there is none to check. The quote shows it is in the paper.
In the paper
“GPN can show, for example, how in Europe government incentives to regionalise supply chains, transboundary investment (both within and into the EU), and organisational strategies of vertical integration are driving new geographies of battery production at a range of scales (e.g. the 'Baltic Belt').”
§ Towards the lithium-ion battery production network: Thinking beyond mineral supply chains > 5. Conclusion
plaindirect- Asserted: passes — The authors put it forward as true.
- Checkable: passes — It can be checked against evidence.
- Load-bearing: passes — The paper’s conclusions depend on it.
- Based: passes — The paper gives a reason why it holds.
It may state two separate claims as one.
A conclusion the paper draws from its own results — it cites no other source for it, so there is none to check. The quote shows it is in the paper.
In the paper
“EV mandates, and municipal and state decarbonisation strategies more generally, have spurred battery demand and created an organisational environment in which automotive companies increasingly occupy the lead firm position in battery production networks.”
§ Towards the lithium-ion battery production network: Thinking beyond mineral supply chains > 5. Conclusion
plaindirect- Asserted: passes — The authors put it forward as true.
- Checkable: passes — It can be checked against evidence.
- Load-bearing: passes — The paper’s conclusions depend on it.
- Based: passes — The paper gives a reason why it holds.
It may state two separate claims as one.
In the paper
“Caveats and uncertainties necessarily attend projections like these, not least because such rapid increases in demand are likely to tighten markets for existing battery minerals (like nickel), propelling shifts towards other battery chemistries such as LFP and manganese-rich cathodes [186].”
§ Towards the lithium-ion battery production network: Thinking beyond mineral supply chains > 5. Conclusion
What the sources say
- Not checked yetcites [186]
hedgedconditional- Asserted: passes — The authors put it forward as true.
- Checkable: passes — It can be checked against evidence.
- Load-bearing: unclear — It is unclear whether the paper’s conclusions depend on it.
- Based: passes — The paper gives a reason why it holds.
It may state two separate claims as one.
A conclusion the paper draws from its own results — it cites no other source for it, so there is none to check. The quote shows it is in the paper.
In the paper
“The cost of the battery means EV manufacturing networks are qualitatively different to those associated with producing petrol or diesel cars; and, for the most part, battery minerals are not consumed in use (like the bulk of oil and gas) but can be recovered and used again, opening up novel value capture possibilities downstream.”
§ Towards the lithium-ion battery production network: Thinking beyond mineral supply chains > 5. Conclusion
plaindirect- Asserted: passes — The authors put it forward as true.
- Checkable: passes — It can be checked against evidence.
- Load-bearing: passes — The paper’s conclusions depend on it.
- Based: fails — The paper may give no reason why it holds.
Probably not a substantial claim. The paper may give no reason why it holds. It may state two separate claims as one.
A conclusion the paper draws from its own results — it cites no other source for it, so there is none to check. The quote shows it is in the paper.
In the paper
“In this section, we demonstrated how a GPN approach moves beyond supply chain analysis to highlight important geographical and organisational structures shaping battery production.”
§ Towards the lithium-ion battery production network: Thinking beyond mineral supply chains > 4.3.3. Emerging business models
boosteddirect- Asserted: passes — The authors put it forward as true.
- Checkable: passes — It can be checked against evidence.
- Load-bearing: passes — The paper’s conclusions depend on it.
- Based: passes — The paper gives a reason why it holds.
Probably not a substantial claim.
- Rests on an assumption: The relations and dynamics that make up the transnational economies of battery production are not well understood.
A conclusion the paper draws from its own results — it cites no other source for it, so there is none to check. The quote shows it is in the paper.
In the paper
“As economies decarbonise, and renewables replace fossil fuels in energy systems in ways that significantly expand demand for minerals, new production networks are emerging that intersect with and disrupt established networks.”
§ Towards the lithium-ion battery production network: Thinking beyond mineral supply chains > 5. Conclusion
plaindirect- Asserted: passes — The authors put it forward as true.
- Checkable: passes — It can be checked against evidence.
- Load-bearing: passes — The paper’s conclusions depend on it.
- Based: fails — The paper may give no reason why it holds.
Probably not a substantial claim. The paper may give no reason why it holds. It may state two separate claims as one.
A conclusion the paper draws from its own results — it cites no other source for it, so there is none to check. The quote shows it is in the paper.
In the paper
“Here the evolution of value capture strategies around batteries, from a product offer to a service, aligns with increasing concerns about access to minerals and governance of their environmental and social impacts (as reflected, for example, in the anticipated EU Battery Regulation).”
§ Towards the lithium-ion battery production network: Thinking beyond mineral supply chains > 5. Conclusion
plaincorrelational- Asserted: passes — The authors put it forward as true.
- Checkable: passes — It can be checked against evidence.
- Load-bearing: passes — The paper’s conclusions depend on it.
- Based: fails — The paper may give no reason why it holds.
Probably not a substantial claim. The paper may give no reason why it holds.
The paper relies on this without support.
The increasing role of electricity as an energy carrier in decarbonising economies is driving growing demand for electrical energy storage in the form of battery systems.
“The increasing role of electricity as an energy carrier in decarbonising economies is driving a growing demand for electrical energy storage in the form of battery systems.”
The paper relies on this without support.
The relations and dynamics that make up the transnational economies of battery production are not well understood.
“The relations and dynamics that make up these transnational economies are not well understood and, importantly, go beyond issues of material flow.”
The paper relies on this without support.
Until now there has been no systematic effort to think through the organisational and geographical structures of LiB production.
“GPN has been successfully applied to other energy sectors, but until now there has been no systematic effort to think through the organisational and geographical structures of LiB production.”
Claims other papers make about this one
Each is checked against this paper’s own text: does it say what the citing paper says it does?
The cited source says what the claim attributes to it.
In the citing paper
“Other studies have evaluated the whole supply chain as a value chain and network [78,79].”
From Lithium Supply Chain Optimization: A Global Analysis of Critical Minerals for Batteries (2024) · cites this paper as [78]
Citations
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Cited by
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Metadata
- Authors
- Bridge, G., & Faigen, E.
- Affiliations
- Durham University (GB)
- Corresponding author
- Bridge, Gavin
- Venue
- Energy Research & Social Science
- Publisher
- Elsevier BV
- Published
- 2022-07
- Volume
- 89
- Pages
- 102659
- ISSN
- 2214-6296 (ISSN-L)
- OpenAlex
- W4281620380
- Semantic Scholar
- 64cc18b795bb6145921714001589f0e5e4f86d5c
- Cited by
- 223
- References
- 106
- Citations by year
- 2026: 54 · 2025: 66 · 2024: 63 · 2023: 37 · 2022: 3
- FWCI
- 31.56
- Type
- journal article
- Language
- en
- Open access
- hybrid
- doi.org
- Licence
- Locations
- Energy Research & Social Science (publishedVersion, cc-by)
- Durham Research Online (Durham University) (acceptedVersion, other-oa)
- Durham Research Online (Durham University) (submittedVersion, cc-by)
- Funders
- UK Energy Research Centre (EP/S029575/1)
- Topics
- Social Sciences › Business, Management and Accounting › Strategy and Management › Global trade, sustainability, and social impact
- Physical Sciences › Materials Science › Metals and Alloys › Extraction and Separation Processes
- Physical Sciences › Engineering › Electrical and Electronic Engineering › Electric Vehicles and Infrastructure
- Keywords
- lithium-ion batteries, global production networks, electric vehicles, stationary energy storage, automotive industry, electric utilities, innovation strategy, role of the state, energy system transformation, energy geopolitics, battery supply chain, energy decarbonization
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