Developmental validation of the HIrisPlex system: DNA-based eye and hair colour prediction for forensic and anthropological usage
Open accessAbstract
Forensic DNA Phenotyping or 'DNA intelligence' tools are expected to aid police investigations and find unknown individuals by providing information on externally visible characteristics of unknown suspects, perpetrators and missing persons from biological samples. This is especially useful in cases where conventional DNA profiling or other means remain non-informative. Recently, we introduced the HIrisPlex system, capable of predicting both eye and hair colour from DNA. In the present developmental validation study, we demonstrate that the HIrisPlex assay performs in full agreement with the Scientific Working Group on DNA Analysis Methods (SWGDAM) guidelines providing an essential prerequisite for future HIrisPlex applications to forensic casework. The HIrisPlex assay produces complete profiles down to only 63 pg of DNA. Species testing revealed human specificity for a complete HIrisPlex profile, while only non-human primates showed the closest full profile at 20 out of the 24 DNA markers, in all animals tested. Rigorous testing of simulated forensic casework samples such as blood, semen, saliva stains, hairs with roots as well as extremely low quantity touch (trace) DNA samples, produced complete profiles in 88% of cases. Concordance testing performed between five independent forensic laboratories displayed consistent reproducible results on varying types of DNA samples. Due to its design, the assay caters for degraded samples, underlined here by results from artificially d…
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Skin color was associated with cognitive ability in monoracial African-Americans (Model 1b).
“Skin color (assessed genetically with the highly accurate predictor [79,93] was associated with cognitive ability (Model 1b, Table 5), but made no significant incremental contribution when ancestry was also in the model (Model 2, Table 5).”
From Global Ancestry and Cognitive Ability (2019) · cites this paper as [93]
Skin color made no significant incremental contribution to cognitive ability when ancestry was also in the model.
“Skin color (assessed genetically with the highly accurate predictor [79,93] was associated with cognitive ability (Model 1b, Table 5), but made no significant incremental contribution when ancestry was also in the model (Model 2, Table 5).”
From Global Ancestry and Cognitive Ability (2019) · cites this paper as [93]
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“But probably the most radical upcoming change in the field is the use of DNA traces not only as piece of evidence but also as investigative tool to phenotypically describe a possible perpetrator [8–10] or to infer his or her biogeographical ancestry [11].”
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Gutiérrez-Hurtado, I., García-Aceves, M. E., Puga-Carrillo, Y., Guardado-Estrada, M., Becerra-Loaiza, D. S., Carrillo-Rodríguez, V. D., Plazola-Zamora, R., Godínez-Rubí, J. M., Rangel-Villalobos, H., & Aguilar-Velázquez, J. (2025) · Biomolecules · doi:10.3390/biom15050713 · Cited by 24 · see citing works
“…features has been explored for their potential use in FDP, including (i) predicting iris, hair, and skin color using SNP markers in key genes [124,125]; (ii) determining eyebrow color [126]; (iii) identifying the presence of freckles [127]; (iv) assessing hair shape [128]; (v) detecting male…”
Salvo, N. M., Janssen, K., Kirsebom, M. K., Meyer, O. S., Berg, T., & Olsen, G. (2021) · Forensic Science International Genetics · doi:10.1016/j.fsigen.2021.102620 · Cited by 24 · see citing works
Frégeau, C. (2021) · Forensic Science International: Genetics · doi:10.1016/j.fsigen.2021.102533 · Cited by 24
Performance of four models for eye color prediction in an Italian population sample.
Salvoro, C., Faccinetto, C., Zucchelli, L., Porto, M., Marino, A., Occhi, G., Campos, G. D. L., & Vazza, G. (2019) · Forensic Science International: Genetics · doi:10.1016/j.fsigen.2019.03.008 · Cited by 24 · see citing works
Sharma, V., Jani, K., Khosla, P., Butler, E., Siegel, D., & Wurmbach, E. (2019) · Electrophoresis · doi:10.1002/elps.201800344 · Cited by 24 · see citing works
Forensic DNA Phenotyping: Genes and Genetic Variants for Eye Color Prediction
Brancato, D., Coniglio, E., Bruno, F., Agostini, V., Saccone, S., & Federico, C. (2023) · Genes · doi:10.3390/genes14081604 · Cited by 22 · see citing works
“In view of a prospective application to forensic casework, only the IrisPlex has been developed and tested in several European and non-European populations, producing accurate predictions in different populations [74,75,78,79].”
BackgroundGoodwin, W. (2016) · Methods in Molecular Biology · doi:10.1007/978-1-4939-3597-0 · Cited by 23
Gutiérrez-Hurtado, I., Sánchez-Méndez, A. D., Becerra-Loaiza, D. S., Rangel-Villalobos, H., Torres-Carrillo, N., Gallegos-Arreola, M., & Aguilar-Velázquez, J. (2024) · International Journal of Molecular Sciences · doi:10.3390/ijms25084230 · Cited by 22 · see citing works
Predicting hair cortisol levels with hair pigmentation genes: a possible hair pigmentation bias
Neumann, A., Noppe, G., Liu, F., Kayser, M., Verhulst, F., Jaddoe, V., van Rossum, E. V., & Tiemeier, H. (2017) · Scientific Reports · doi:10.1038/s41598-017-07034-w · Cited by 22 · see citing works
“Hair color was categorized into 7 categories: “sandy red” (1), “red or chestnut” (2), “blond” (3), “dark blond” (4), “brown” (5), “dark brown” (6), “brownish black or black” (7), analyzed as continuous variable (ranging from 1–7) indicating pigmentation intensity.”
Self-citationPrediction of eye, hair and skin colour in Latin Americans.
Palmal, S., Adhikari, K., Mendoza-Revilla, J., Fuentes-Guajardo, M., de Cerqueira, C. C. S., Bonfante, B., Chacón-Duque, J., Sohail, A., Hurtado, M., Villegas, V., et al. (2021) · Forensic Science International: Genetics · doi:10.1016/j.fsigen.2021.102517 · Cited by 21 · see citing works
Optimizing the genetic prediction of the eye and hair color for North Eurasian populations
Balanovska, E., Lukianova, E., Kagazezheva, J., Maurer, A., Leybova, N., Agdzhoyan, A., Gorin, I., Petrushenko, V., Zhabagin, M., Pylev, V., et al. (2020) · BMC Genomics · doi:10.1186/s12864-020-06923-1 · Cited by 21 · see citing works
DNA Fingerprinting: A substantial and imperative aid to forensic investigation -
Shrivastava, P., Jain, T., & Trivedi, V. B. (2016) · doi:10.5455/ejfs.204929 · Cited by 21
“There has been increasing interest in the determination of externally visible characteristics (“EVCs”) such as age, eye color, hair color, and skin color, a newly emerging forensic technique [66-70], now more commonly known as FDP.”
BackgroundForensic DNA phenotyping: a review on SNP panels, genotyping techniques, and prediction models
Terrado-Ortuño, N., & May, P. (2024) · Forensic Sciences Research · doi:10.1093/fsr/owae013 · Cited by 19 · see citing works
Staadig, A., Hedman, J., & Tillmar, A. (2023) · Genes · doi:10.3390/genes14040818 · Cited by 20 · see citing works
“However, the prediction of intermediate eye color has previously been shown to be difficult [51], and the aim of this study was not to evaluate the prediction power but rather to show that we can analyze the phenotype and ancestry informative SNP markers with the FORCE QIAseq assay including UMIs.”
MethodA review of the method and validation of the MiSeq FGx™ Forensic Genomics Solution
England, R., & Harbison, S. (2019) · WIREs Forensic Science · doi:10.1002/wfs2.1351 · Cited by 20 · see citing works
Ragazzo, M., Puleri, G., Errichiello, V., Manzo, L., Luzzi, L., Potenza, S., Strafella, C., Peconi, C., Nicastro, F., Caputo, V., et al. (2021) · Genes · doi:10.3390/genes12020221 · Cited by 19 · see citing works
“This evidence was from different tissues (10 from saliva, 2 from semen, 7 from blood, 2 from urine) and was attributed to 8 different subjects from different tissues [23,24].”
BackgroundMethodLikelihood ratio and posterior odds in forensic genetics: Two sides of the same coin.
Caliebe, A., Walsh, S., Liu, F., Kayser, M., & Krawczak, M. (2017) · Forensic Science International: Genetics · doi:10.1016/j.fsigen.2017.03.004 · Cited by 19 · see citing works
“In fact, two dedicated DNA systems have been developed and forensically validated for these EVCs, namely IrisPlex for eye color alone [12, 16, 17] and HIrisPlex for simultaneous eye and hair color prediction [11, 18].”
MethodSelf-citationLi, L., Wang, Y., Yang, S., Xia, M., Yang, Y.-J., Wang, J.-C., Lu, D.-R., Pan, X., Ma, T., Jiang, P., et al. (2017) · Forensic Science International: Genetics · doi:10.1016/j.fsigen.2017.02.005 · Cited by 19 · see citing works
A Practical Guide to the HIrisPlex System: Simultaneous Prediction of Eye and Hair Color from DNA
Walsh, S., & Kayser, M. (2016) · Methods in molecular biology · doi:10.1007/978-1-4939-3597-0_17 · Cited by 26 · see citing works
Self-citationHRM and SNaPshot as alternative forensic SNP genotyping methods
Mehta, B., Daniel, R., & McNevin, D. (2017) · Forensic Science, Medicine, and Pathology · doi:10.1007/s12024-017-9874-5 · Cited by 18
“Forensic SNaPshot® assays such as the SNPforID 52-plex [4], SNPforID 34-plex [17], HIrisPlex [14] and IrisPlex [6, 12] have demonstrated the ability to multiplex in the range 6–34 SNPs in a single PCR reaction.”
MethodResultPrediction of human eye colour using highly informative phenotype SNPs (PISNPs)
Bulbul, O., Zorlu, T., & Filoglu, G. (2018) · Australian Journal of Forensic Sciences · doi:10.1080/00450618.2018.1484161 · Cited by 17 · see citing works
Advancement in Human Face Prediction Using DNA
Alshehhi, A., Almarzooqi, A., Alhammadi, K., Werghi, N., Tay, G. K., & AlSafar, H. S. (2023) · Genes · doi:10.3390/genes14010136 · Cited by 18 · see citing works
Carratto, T. M. T., Marcorin, L., Valle-Silva, G. D., de Oliveira, M. D., Donadi, E., Simões, A., Castelli, E., & Mendes-Junior, C. (2021) · Zeitschrift für Rechtsmedizin · doi:10.1007/s00414-021-02554-7 · Cited by 16 · see citing works
“It is expected that samples with higher non-European proportions will present higher probabilities for dark hair, since light derived alleles from Europeans may be less common in such samples [36].”
BackgroundMethodInfluentialChen, Y., Branicki, W., Walsh, S., Nothnagel, M., Kayser, M., & Liu, F. (2020) · Forensic Science International Genetics · doi:10.1016/j.fsigen.2020.102395 · Cited by 15 · see citing works
Self-citationKataria, S., Dabas, P., Kn, S., SACHDEVA, M. P., & Jain, S. G. (2022) · Science & Justice · doi:10.1016/j.scijus.2022.12.002 · Cited by 19 · see citing works
Zupanič-Pajnič, I., Zupanc, T., Leskovar, T., Črešnar, M., & Fattorini, P. (2022) · Genes · doi:10.3390/genes13081432 · Cited by 15
“In the remaining 2 skeletons, eye color was not predicted because of no availability (NA) for data of the rs12913832 marker [4,56].”
BackgroundMethodAtwood, L., Raymond, J., Sears, A., Bell, M., & Daniel, R. (2021) · Frontiers in Genetics · doi:10.3389/fgene.2020.568701 · Cited by 15
Forensic DNA phenotyping: A promising tool to aid forensic investigation. Current situation
Serrano, A. C. (2020) · Revista Española de Medicina Legal · doi:10.1016/j.remle.2020.01.002 · Cited by 15 · see citing works
Forensic genetic investigation of human skeletal remains recovered from the La Belle shipwreck.
Ambers, A., Bus, M., King, J., Jones, B. M., Durst, J., Bruseth, J., Gill-King, H., & Budowle, B. (2019) · Forensic Science International · doi:10.1016/j.forsciint.2019.110050 · Cited by 15 · see citing works
Ethical and security challenges in AI for forensic genetics: From bias to adversarial attacks.
Marsico, F. L., & Amigo, M. (2025) · Forensic Science International: Genetics · doi:10.1016/j.fsigen.2025.103225 · Cited by 14 · see citing works
Investigating the genetic architecture of eye colour in a Canadian cohort
Lona‐Durazo, F., Thakur, R., Pairo‐Castineira, E., Funderburk, K. M., Zhang, T., Kovacs, M. A., Choi, J., Jackson, I. J., Brown, K. M., & Parra, E. J. (2022) · iScience · doi:10.1016/j.isci.2022.104485 · Cited by 14 · see citing works
Barrio, P. A., Garcı́a, O., Phillips, C., Prieto, L., Gusmão, L., Fernández, C., Casals, F., Freitas, J., González-Albo, M. D. C., Martín, P., et al. (2020) · Forensic Science International: Genetics · doi:10.1016/j.fsigen.2020.102391 · Cited by 14 · see citing works
“The analysis software associated with each of the two main MPS systems allows easy use and interpretation [9, 13,14], with the existence of open-access bioinformatic tools [9,13,26, 39 – 41,65 – 67,69”
BackgroundMethodInfluentialPredictive DNA analysis for biogeographical ancestry
Cheung, E. Y. Y., Gahan, M., & McNevin, D. (2018) · Australian Journal of Forensic Sciences · doi:10.1080/00450618.2017.1422021 · Cited by 14 · see citing works
Melchionda, F., Silvestrini, B., Robino, C., Bini, C., Fattorini, P., Martínez-Labarga, C., Angelis, F. D., Tagliabracci, A., & Turchi, C. (2022) · Genes · doi:10.3390/genes13101688 · Cited by 13 · see citing works
“The prediction of pigmentation traits of 2800 M Control DNA (Promega) was performed using the prediction guide recommendations [2,44,46] and describes an individual with brown eyes (p-value 0.”
BackgroundMethodLife history and ancestry of the late Upper Palaeolithic infant from Grotta delle Mura, Italy
Higgins, O. A., Modi, A., Cannariato, C., Diroma, M. A., Lugli, F., Ricci, S., Zaro, V., Vai, S., Vazzana, A., Romandini, M., et al. (2024) · Nature Communications · doi:10.1038/s41467-024-51150-x · Cited by 12 · see citing works
Forensic DNA phenotyping using Oxford Nanopore Sequencing system
Sapan, V., Simsek, S. Z., Filoglu, G., & Bulbul, O. (2024) · Electrophoresis · doi:10.1002/elps.202300252 · Cited by 12
Fabbri, M., Alfieri, L., Mazdai, L., Frisoni, P., Gaudio, R., & Neri, M. (2023) · Healthcare · doi:10.3390/healthcare11050647 · Cited by 12
“Following that, with the HIrisPlex model, it was possible to evaluate both eye colour and hair colour at the same time [45].”
BackgroundMethodNavarro-López, B., Baeta, M., Suárez-Ulloa, V., Martos, R., Moreno-López, O., Martínez‐Jarreta, B., Jiménez, S., Olalde, Í., & de Pancorbo, M. M. (2024) · Genes · doi:10.3390/genes15101330 · Cited by 11 · see citing works
Aguilar-Velázquez, J., Llamas-de-Dios, B. J., Córdova-Mercado, M. F., Coronado-Ávila, C. E., Salas-Salas, O., López-Quintero, A., Ramos-González, B., & Rangel-Villalobos, H. (2023) · Genes · doi:10.3390/genes14051120 · Cited by 11
“For Hirisplex, a prediction efficacy of 81–93% was initially reported for red, blond, brown, and black hair colors [41].”
Background
- Authors
- Walsh, S., Chaitanya, L., Clarisse, L., Wirken, L., Draus-Barini, J., Kovatsi, L., Maeda, H., Ishikawa, T., Sijen, T., de Knijff, P., Branicki, W., Liu, F., & Kayser, M.
- Affiliations
- Erasmus MC (NL)
- Netherlands Forensic Institute (NL)
- Leiden University Medical Center (NL)
- Aristotle University of Thessaloniki (GR)
- Osaka City University (JP)
- Jagiellonian University (PL)
- Corresponding author
- Kayser, Manfred
- ORCID
- Venue
- Forensic Science International: Genetics
- Publisher
- Elsevier BV
- Published
- 2014-03
- Volume
- 9
- Pages
- 150-161
- ISSN
- 1872-4973 (ISSN-L)
- OpenAlex
- W2014796310
- Cited by
- 240
- References
- 44
- Citations by year
- 2026: 24 · 2025: 23 · 2024: 19 · 2023: 31 · 2022: 22 · 2021: 23 · 2020: 18 · 2019: 23 · 2018: 19 · 2017: 19 · 2016: 10 · 2015: 7 · 2014: 2
- FWCI
- 8.31
- Type
- journal article
- Language
- en
- Open access
- green
- ruj.uj.edu.pl
- Licence
- cc-by-nc-nd
- www.elsevier.com/tdm/userlicense/1.0/ (tdm)
- Locations
- Forensic Science International Genetics (publishedVersion)
- PubMed (publishedVersion)
- Jagiellonian University Repository (Jagiellonian University) (submittedVersion, cc-by-nc-nd)
- EUR Research Repository (Erasmus University Rotterdam) (submittedVersion)
- RePub (Erasmus University Rotterdam) (submittedVersion, other-oa)
- Data Archiving and Networked Services (DANS) (submittedVersion)
- Leiden Repository (Leiden University) (submittedVersion)
- Funders
- Netherlands Forensic Institute (NFI)
- Erasmus MC University Medical Center Rotterdam
- Netherlands Genomics Initiative (NGI)/Netherlands Organization for Scientific Research (NWO)
- European Union Seventh Framework Programme (285487)
- Topics
- Life Sciences › Biochemistry, Genetics and Molecular Biology › Genetics › Forensic and Genetic Research
- Life Sciences › Biochemistry, Genetics and Molecular Biology › Genetics › Genetic diversity and population structure
- Life Sciences › Agricultural and Biological Sciences › Insect Science › Forensic Entomology and Diptera Studies
- Keywords
- forensic DNA phenotyping, trace DNA, degraded DNA, ancient DNA, human remains, missing persons, genotype-phenotype database, forensic anthropology
- MeSH terms
- Alleles, Blood Chemical Analysis, DNA, Eye Color, Genotype, Hair, Hair Color, Heterozygote, Humans, Saliva, Semen, Polymorphism, Single Nucleotide, Forensic Genetics
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