Nanomedicine for phage therapy: Encapsulation strategies for enhanced antimicrobial efficacy
Open accessAbstract
Antibiotic resistance is a growing global health crisis, driving the need for alternative antimicrobial strategies. Phage therapy has re-emerged as a promising approach due to its specificity and ability to evolve against bacterial resistance mechanisms. However, therapeutic implementation is often challenged by factors such as phage stability, immune clearance, and site-specific delivery. Encapsulation technologies offer a potential solution, enhancing phage bioavailability, systemic circulation, and therapeutic action at the infection site. This review explores the latest advancements in phage encapsulation within the context of nanomedicine-based delivery systems, including polymeric nanoparticles, liposomes, hydrogels, nanofibers, and inorganic nanoparticles. Each system is analyzed regarding its impact on phage stability, pharmacokinetics, and host-pathogen interactions, with a particular focus on applications in clinical and preclinical models of phage therapy. Liposomal and polymeric nanoparticle encapsulation enhance phage persistence in systemic circulation and protect them from degradation. Hydrogels and nanofibers improve localized phage delivery for wound healing applications, while inorganic nanoparticles and stimuli-responsive nanocarriers facilitate targeted delivery for intracellular and respiratory infections. By leveraging nanotechnology-driven encapsulation, phage therapy can overcome key delivery challenges, expanding its potential for treating multidrug-r…
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Engineering strategies to address limitations of phage delivery platforms, such as PEGylation, polymer encapsulation, immune-evasive capsid mutations, and biomaterial carriers, are actively being developed.
“Engineering strategies to address these limitations, such as (Polyethylene glycol) PEGylation, polymer encapsulation, immune-evasive capsid mutations, and biomaterial carriers, are actively being developed [101–103]”
From Phage therapy in oncology: opportunities for cancer prevention and treatment (2026) · cites this paper as [101]
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Bacteriophage therapy against American foulbrood in honey bees: a PRISMA-guided systematic review
Walter, N., Bolte, A. T., Mirzaei, M. K., Deng, L., & Rupp, M. (2026) · Frontiers in Microbiology · doi:10.3389/fmicb.2026.1816537
Phage therapy at a turning point: Convergence, customisation, and clinical promise
Lin, R. C. Y., & Suh, G. A. (2026) · International Journal of Antimicrobial Agents · doi:10.1016/j.ijantimicag.2026.107813
Zimba, B. L., Yang, X., Sauli, E., Rwiza, M. J., & Wang, S. (2026) · Biomedical Materials · doi:10.1088/1748-605x/ae8e14
Progress of Bacteriophage Research and Application in the Treatment of Bovine Mastitis: A Review
Gao, J., Ding, Y., He, A., Zhang, W., & Chen, H. (2026) · Veterinary Sciences · doi:10.3390/vetsci13080783
Tabassum, N., Javaid, A., Karthikeyan, A., Kim, M., Kim, Y., & Khan, F. (2026) · Antibiotics · doi:10.3390/antibiotics15090874
Hossain, I., Abraham, S., & Uddin, M. J. (2026) · International Journal of Antimicrobial Agents · doi:10.1016/j.ijantimicag.2026.108032
Nautiyal, D., Sahu, M. S., & Jain, U. (2026) · Future Microbiology · doi:10.1080/17460913.2026.2752147
- Authors
- Dorta-Gorrín, A., Salgueiriño, V., & García-Hevia, L.
- Affiliations
- Servicio Gallego de Salud (ES)
- Venue
- International Journal of Antimicrobial Agents
- Publisher
- Elsevier BV
- Published
- 2026-01
- Volume
- 67
- Issue
- 1
- Pages
- 107660
- ISSN
- 0924-8579 (ISSN-L)
- OpenAlex
- W4415880030
- Semantic Scholar
- fcda10af474eaf1e1623b686c7a8160ca7f58a4f
- Cited by
- 16
- References
- 167
- Citations by year
- 2026: 16
- FWCI
- 1.54
- Type
- journal article
- Language
- en
- Open access
- hybrid
- doi.org
- Licence
- Locations
- International Journal of Antimicrobial Agents (publishedVersion, cc-by)
- PubMed (publishedVersion)
- UCrea (University of Cantabria) (submittedVersion, cc-by)
- Funders
- Carlos III Health Institute (PI23/00261)
- Xunta de Galicia (ED431F 2025/21)
- Mutua Madrileña Foundation
- EU Framework Programme for Research and Innovation Marie Skłodowska-Curie Actions
- Ministerio de Ciencia e Innovación
- National Plan for Scientific and Technical Research and Innovation (RYC2022-035230-I)
- Topics
- Physical Sciences › Environmental Science › Ecology › Bacteriophages and microbial interactions
- Physical Sciences › Materials Science › Biomaterials › Nanoparticle-Based Drug Delivery
- Life Sciences › Biochemistry, Genetics and Molecular Biology › Molecular Biology › RNA Interference and Gene Delivery
- Keywords
- phage therapy, phage encapsulation, nanomedicine, antibiotic resistance, phage stability, polymeric nanoparticles, liposomes, hydrogels, nanofibers, inorganic nanoparticles, stimuli-responsive nanocarriers, wound healing, multidrug-resistant bacterial infections, pharmacokinetics, immune clearance, respiratory infections, intracellular infection
- MeSH terms
- Phage Therapy, Animals, Bacterial Infections, Bacteriophages, Humans, Liposomes, Nanomedicine, Nanoparticles
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