The Parental Overprotection Scale: Associations with child and parental anxiety
Open accessAbstract
BACKGROUND: Parental overprotection has commonly been implicated in the development and maintenance of childhood anxiety disorders. Overprotection has been assessed using questionnaire and observational methods interchangeably; however, the extent to which these methods access the same construct has received little attention. Edwards et al. (2008, 2010) developed a promising parent-report measure of overprotection (OP) and reported that, with parents of pre-school children, the measure correlated with observational assessments and predicted changes in child anxiety symptoms. We aimed to validate the use of the OP measure with mothers of children in middle childhood, and examine its association with child and parental anxiety. METHODS: Mothers of 90 children (60 clinically anxious, 30 non-anxious) aged 7-12 years completed the measure and engaged in a series of mildly stressful tasks with their child. RESULTS: The internal reliability of the measure was good and scores correlated significantly with observations of maternal overprotection in a challenging puzzle task. Contrary to expectations, OP was not significantly associated with child anxiety status or symptoms, but was significantly associated with maternal anxiety symptoms. LIMITATIONS: Participants were predominantly from affluent social groups and of non-minority status. Overprotection is a broad construct, the use of specific sub-dimensions of behavioural constructs may be preferable. CONCLUSIONS: The findings support the use of the OP measure to assess parental overprotection among 7-12 year-old children; however, they suggest that parental responses may be more closely related to the degree of parental rather than child anxiety.
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Parents of anxious children are more likely to be overprotective, which may make them less likely to notice their children's avoidance.
“Additionally, research has shown that parents of anxious children are more likely to be overprotective (e.g., Clarke et al., 2013), which may make them less likely to notice their children's avoidance, thus potentially normalizing it in some way and discouraging the child's independence and courageous behavior.”
From Child- and Parent-Report Measures of Behavioral Avoidance (CAMS/CAMP): Portuguese Validation in Clinical and Non-Clinical Samples. (2024) · cites this paper as Clarke et al., 2013
The citation is attached to the claim that parents of anxious children are more likely to be overprotective. Although the Introduction describes an association reported in earlier research, this paper’s Results found no significant difference in overprotection between mothers of anxious and non-anxious children aged 7–12; the Discussion explicitly calls this contrary to expectations. The later suggestion about noticing avoidance is the citing authors’ inference, not the point cited to this paper. (LLM, conf=0.88)
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“This task is a well-used paradigm to observe behavioral responses to negative affect induced by a challenging task (Chan et al., 2021; Clarke et al., 2013; Corpus & Lepper, 2007; Hudson & Rapee, 2001; Park et al., 2017; van der Bruggen et al., 2010).”
González‐García, H., Muñoz, A. P., & Carballo, J. L. (2018) · Revista Internacional de Medicina y Ciencias de la Actividad Física y del Deporte · doi:10.15366/rimcafd2018.71.012 · Cited by 9 · see citing works
Yaffe, Y. (2024) · Child Psychiatry & Human Development · doi:10.1007/s10578-024-01757-4 · Cited by 8 · see citing works
“As for parental overprotection specifically, despite the literature depicting its substantial etiological role in child anxiety [19, 20, 22], so far not much research work has tested the specific role played by this pattern of parental control in the association between parent–child anxiety.”
Kearney, C. A., Blanco, A. M., & Dugan, R. B. (2025) · The Family Journal · doi:10.1177/10664807251360787 · Cited by 8 · see citing works
“A common fi nding in many of these families is caregiver overprotectiveness, de fi ned as strong control and lack of autonomy granting that reinforces a child ’ s perception of the world as dangerous and thus avoidance and fewer opportunities to master challenging situations (Clarke et al., 2013).”
Development and validation of the Modeling of Parental Anxiety Questionnaire
Elfström, S., & Åhlén, J. (2021) · Journal of Anxiety Disorders · doi:10.1016/j.janxdis.2021.102515 · Cited by 8 · see citing works
Parental Overprotection and Sleep Problems in Young Children
Pizzo, A., Sandstrom, A., Drobinin, V., Propper, L., Uher, R., & Pavlová, B. (2021) · Child Psychiatry & Human Development · doi:10.1007/s10578-021-01199-2 · Cited by 8 · see citing works
Blagovechtchenski, E., Koriakina, M. M., Bredikhin, D., Agranovich, O. Е., Kadieva, D., Ermolovich, E., Jääskeläinen, I. P., & Шестакова, А. Н. (2023) · International Journal of Environmental Research and Public Health · doi:10.3390/ijerph20031841 · Cited by 7 · see citing works
“Furthermore, parental overprotection increases the level of anxiety in children, which also suppresses the development of cognitive functions [37,38].”
BackgroundWright, M. F. (2024) · Children · doi:10.3390/children11070777 · Cited by 7 · see citing works
Family, Bullying and Cyberbullying
Olivas, R. N. (2019) · MDPI eBooks · doi:10.3390/books978-3-03921-081-7 · Cited by 7 · see citing works
The role of parenting stress in anxiety and sleep outcomes in toddlers with congenital heart disease
Lepage, C., Gaudet, I., Doussau, A., Vinay, M.-C., Gagner, C., Siebenthal, Z. V., Poirier, N. C., Simard, M., Paquette, N., & Gallagher, A. (2023) · Frontiers in Pediatrics · doi:10.3389/fped.2022.1055526 · Cited by 7 · see citing works
“It has also been shown that parents may pass on their anxiety to their child, through overprotective behavior, fears and personal or interpersonal distress (10).”
BackgroundKiel, E. J., Wagers, K. B., & Luebbe, A. M. (2017) · Assessment · doi:10.1177/1073191117719513 · Cited by 8 · see citing works
“Our results expand the literature on parenting attitudes about child anxiety and parenting (e.g., Chen et al., 1998; Clarke et al., 2013; Cooklin et al., 2013) to suggest that more anxious parents, particularly those endorsing worry and social anxiety, may view protective behaviors more positively.”
ResultCook, S., Pruessner, J. C., LUPIEN, S. J., & Juster, R. (2018) · Psychology and Sexuality · doi:10.1080/19419899.2018.1470105 · Cited by 7 · see citing works
Laufer, A., & Isman, E. B. (2024) · Child Care Health and Development · doi:10.1111/cch.13227 · Cited by 6 · see citing works
Jones, B., Reardon, T. C., Creswell, C., Dodd, H. F., Hill, C., Jasper, B., Lawrence, P. J., Morgan, F., Rapee, R. M., Violato, M., et al. (2022) · Trials · doi:10.1186/s13063-022-06899-1 · Cited by 5 · see citing works
Self-citationVictimization by Friends and Victimization by Other Peers: Common Risk Factors or Mutual Influence?
Vučetić, M., Brendgen, M. R., Vitaro, F., Dionne, G., & Boivin, M. (2020) · Journal of Youth and Adolescence · doi:10.1007/s10964-020-01270-6 · Cited by 8 · see citing works
Steiner, E. M., & Dahlquist, L. M. (2021) · Children s Health Care · doi:10.1080/02739615.2021.2007771 · Cited by 6 · see citing works
Chen, H., Wang, K.-W., Yang, N., Bi, K.-W., & Chong, E. S. K. (2025) · Adolescent Research Review · doi:10.1007/s40894-025-00265-3 · Cited by 6 · see citing works
Lobo, E., Mahapatra, S., Jeong, J., Babu, G. R., Srinivas, P. N., Mukherjee, D., & van Schayck, O. C. P. (2025) · Early Human Development · doi:10.1016/j.earlhumdev.2025.106424 · Cited by 9 · see citing works
“…sensitive care compared to those with intellectual impairments, perhaps due to the more visible nature of the impairment and heightened vigilance to ensure safety and security against potential harm in the former, and weak or subtle behavioural cues elicited by the child in the latter [184,185].”
Maternal Gatekeeping in Children with Developmental Language Disorder
Kara, E., & Doğangün, B. (2024) · Psychiatry and Clinical Psychopharmacology · doi:10.5152/pcp.2024.23784 · Cited by 5 · see citing works
“22 There are factors related to both the parent 23 , 24 and the child such as developmental pathologies including communication problems, 25 , 26 and these can influence the level of parental protection.”
BackgroundFernandes, C. C., Martins, A. T., Santa-Rita, A., & Faísca, L. (2022) · Current Psychology · doi:10.1007/s12144-022-03247-z · Cited by 5 · see citing works
Burden, needs, and attitudes of parents of children with cerebral palsy in a middle-income country
Onwuakagba, I. U., Okoye, E. C., Simon, L. A., Okonkwo, U. P., & Nwankwo, M. J. (2023) · Journal of Public Health · doi:10.1007/s10389-023-01896-3 · Cited by 6 · see citing works
“…mothers of children with CP most commonly exhibit acceptance, they potentially exhibit overprotectiveness and more demanding attitudes than other mothers (Al-Dababneh and Al-Zboon, 2018; Jankowska et al. 2014), which is usually associated with poor outcomes in their children (Clarke et al. 2013).”
Kim, M. A., Yi, J., Sang, J., & Kim, S. H. (2024) · SAGE Open · doi:10.1177/21582440241260052 · Cited by 5 · see citing works
“Furthermore, parental overprotection has been shown to affect parental anxiety symptoms (Clarke et al., 2013), which may lead to stress relating to the parental role.”
Jones, L. B., Risley, S. M., & Kiel, E. J. (2021) · Journal of Family Psychology · doi:10.1037/fam0000877 · Cited by 5 · see citing works
Arslan, A., Yener, S., & Eroğul, M. Ş. (2022) · Current Psychology · doi:10.1007/s12144-022-03521-0 · Cited by 5 · see citing works
“Although parental intrusiveness might hold slight differences in definition, on many occasions they overlap because intrusive attitudes are also considered as one of the major features of over-parenting (Clarke et al., 2013) in terms of having difficulties in accepting that a little bit of autonomy could provide a cer…”
BackgroundPelegrín, A., González‐García, H., & Fayos, E. J. G. D. L. (2019) · Retos · doi:10.47197/retos.v36i36.64592 · Cited by 5 · see citing works
Cultivating children’s online self-regulated learning: the role of parental mediation and support
Wang, J., Chen, S., & Bai, B. (2025) · Education and Information Technologies · doi:10.1007/s10639-025-13555-z · Cited by 7 · see citing works
“Parents are central agents of children’s socialization into internet use (Clarke et al., 2013), who raise children’s consciousness and concerns of internet risks through restrictive mediation (Steinfeld, 2021).”
Wang, J., Guo, M., Day, J., & Kirby, J. (2023) · Journal of Child and Family Studies · doi:10.1007/s10826-022-02522-8 · Cited by 4 · see citing works
“Parental overprotection involves raising children in a controlled and overprotective manner (Clarke et al., 2013; Parker et al., 1979), such as constantly monitoring and controlling what children do, withholding autonomy and responsibility, and reinforcing dependency on parents.”
BackgroundNew Generation Parenting Attitude: Helicopter Parenting
Türker, M., & Bahçeci, F. (2024) · Alanyazın · doi:10.59320/alanyazin.1452153 · Cited by 4 · see citing works
Meng, F., Cheng, C., Xie, Y., Li, X., & Liang, J. (2024) · Children and Youth Services Review · doi:10.1016/j.childyouth.2024.108002 · Cited by 4 · see citing works
Kane‐Grade, F., Sacks, D. D., Petty, C. R., Xie, W., Nelson, C. A., & Enlow, M. B. (2024) · Development and Psychopathology · doi:10.1017/s0954579424001858 · Cited by 4 · see citing works
Vesterling, C. (2023) · Journal of Child and Family Studies · doi:10.1007/s10826-023-02712-y · Cited by 4 · see citing works
“Authors reported both good reliability (retest and internal consistency α = 0.87) and validity (predictive and construct validity) (see Clarke et al., 2013; Edwards et al., 2010).”
InfluentialWright, M. F., & Wachs, S. (2024) · Youth & Society · doi:10.1177/0044118x241272062 · Cited by 4 · see citing works
“Conceptualized as a form of overprotective parenting, restrictive mediation might potentially hinder adolescents’ ability to develop problem-solving and social skills that would facilitate their skills for dealing effectively with cyberbullying (Clarke et al., 2013; Lereya et al., 2013).”
Sahithya, B., & Raman, V. (2020) · Open Journal of Psychiatry & Allied Sciences · doi:10.5958/2394-2061.2020.00005.1 · Cited by 6 · see citing works
“[10] Models describing development and maintenance of childhood anxiety disorders have highlighted the central role of parental behaviours[11] as parents play a considerable role in shaping children’s emotional health.”
BackgroundCaiado, B., Canavarro, M. C., Pereira, A. I., & Moreira, H. (2024) · Journal of Psychopathology and Behavioral Assessment · doi:10.1007/s10862-023-10102-3 · Cited by 3 · see citing works
“Additionally, research has shown that parents of anxious children are more likely to be overprotec-tive (e.g., Clarke et al., 2013), which may make them less likely to notice their children’s avoidance, thus potentially normalizing it in some way and discouraging the child’s independence and…”
Separation anxiety disorder, perceived overprotection and quality of life in epilepsy patients
Yetkin, H., Görmez, A., Elbay, R. Y., Kurtulmuş, A., Tombul, T., & Varoğlu, A. O. (2024) · Epilepsy & Behavior · doi:10.1016/j.yebeh.2024.109972 · Cited by 3 · see citing works
Yirmiya, K., Klein, A., Atzil, S., Yakirevich-Amir, N., Bina, R., & Reuveni, I. (2025) · European Journal of Psychotraumatology · doi:10.1080/20008066.2025.2468542 · Cited by 3 · see citing works
“These behaviours may instill feelings of anxiety and self-doubt in children, affecting their perceived competence, reinforcing their perception of the world as dangerous (Laurin et al., 2015), and inhibiting their ability to develop coping skills and autonomy (Clarke et al., 2013).”
Bitarafan, M., Abasi, I., Fatemizadeh, M., Khorrami, M., & Aslzaker, M. (2022) · Modern Care Journal · doi:10.5812/modernc-130525 · Cited by 4 · see citing works
“Since anxiety is closely associated with suicidal behaviors (72, 73), over-interference and overprotectiveness of parents can indirectly lead to the rise of self-destructive, suicidal thoughts and attempts in children (74).”
BackgroundFournier, H., Pillaud, N., Morice‐Picard, F., Hadj-Rabia, S., Arveiler, B., & Quintard, B. (2025) · Social Science & Medicine · doi:10.1016/j.socscimed.2025.117684 · Cited by 3 · see citing works
Panier, L. Y. X., Allison, G. O., Sejourne, C., Slavich, G. M., & Weinberg, A. (2025) · Development and Psychopathology · doi:10.1017/s095457942510028x · Cited by 3 · see citing works
Meehan, S. (2015) · Journal of Psychology & Clinical Psychiatry · doi:10.15406/jpcpy.2015.03.00135 · Cited by 3 · see citing works
“Parental anxiety has been measured in parent-child orientated research such as that of Clarke, Cooper & Creswell [28], Cobham et al. [29], Geggel et al. [30] and Pereira et al. [31].”
MethodDeveloping a Brief Parent Training Intervention to Prevent Anxiety in Offspring
Åhlén, J., Vigerland, S., Lindberg, M., Gunterberg, O., & Ghaderi, A. (2022) · Scandinavian Journal of Child and Adolescent Psychiatry and Psychology · doi:10.2478/sjcapp-2022-0013 · Cited by 3 · see citing works
“anxiety in new and challenging situations (27).”
Faith, M. A., Boone, D. M., Stromberg, S. E., Fritz, A. M., Rodríguez, J. H., Gregus, S. J., & Healy, A. S. (2023) · Journal of Child and Family Studies · doi:10.1007/s10826-023-02641-w · Cited by 3 · see citing works
“…stress and overprotective parenting (Janssens et al., 2009; Mullins et al., 2007), (2) parents ’ anxiety and their over-protective parenting (Clarke et al., 2013; Edwards et al., 2010), and (3) parents ’ perceptions of environmental threats and their overprotective parenting (Fischer et…”
Amiri, A., Kalantari, M., Rezaee, M., Baghban, A. A., & Gharebashloo, F. (2019) · Iranian Rehabilitation Journal · doi:10.32598/irj.17.4.319 · Cited by 3 · see citing works
“Parental overprotection has been consistently associated with child anxiety symptoms and disorders [19].”
BackgroundUnderstanding relationship between emotional intelligence and perceived upbringing
Chamarty, S. (2019) · International Journal of Indian Psychology · doi:10.25215/0704.078 · Cited by 3 · see citing works
Meehan, S. (2016) · Journal of Psychology & Clinical Psychiatry · doi:10.15406/jpcpy.2016.05.00277 · Cited by 3 · see citing works
Reardon, T. C., Dodd, H. F., Hill, C., Jasper, B., Lawrence, P. J., Morgan, F., Rapee, R. M., Ukoumunne, O. C., Violato, M., Davey, E., et al. (2022) · Research Square · doi:10.21203/rs.3.rs-970695/v1 · Cited by 3 · see citing works
Self-citationRyan, K. M., Zimmer‐Gembeck, M. J., Hawes, T., Stuart, J., Zimmermann, G., Soenens, B., & Petegem, S. V. (2026) · Family Relations · doi:10.1111/fare.70150 · Cited by 3 · see citing works
Evidence-Based Psychotherapy Practices for Preschool Children: A Brief Review for Clinicians
Zhukova, M., & Trent, E. S. (2022) · Clinical Psychology and Special Education · doi:10.17759/cpse.2022110202 · Cited by 3 · see citing works
“, a mother accompanying her child on all social outings; [16]).”
Backgroundde Jong‐Lenters, M., Pasman, B., & Duijster, D. (2023) · European Archives of Paediatric Dentistry · doi:10.1007/s40368-023-00814-1 · Cited by 2 · see citing works
“The independent variable, overprotective parenting, was measured with the Parental Overprotection Measure (POM) questionnaire (Clarke et al. 2013).”
MethodOkawa, S., Rapee, R. M., Takahashi, T., Reardon, T. C., Arai, H., Shimizu, E., & Creswell, C. (2024) · Child Psychiatry & Human Development · doi:10.1007/s10578-024-01753-8 · Cited by 2 · see citing works
“The cut-off points for the validities were set based on the correlation coefficient between the mother/father reported POM and each measure in a previous study [21, 23].”
InfluentialSelf-citationElfström, S., & Åhlén, J. (2024) · Journal of Child and Family Studies · doi:10.1007/s10826-024-02967-z · Cited by 2 · see citing works
“Furthermore, it has been used with parents of children in both early (Edwards et al., 2008) and middle childhood (Clarke et al., 2013), suggesting it may be a suitable measure for longitudinal studies.”
Vesterling, C., & von Düring, U. (2025) · New Directions for Child and Adolescent Development · doi:10.1155/cad/7715429 · Cited by 3 · see citing works
Byrne, J. A., & Clark, L. H. (2023) · Child & Youth Care Forum · doi:10.1007/s10566-023-09771-8 · Cited by 2 · see citing works
“Research has found associations between parental anxiety and the use of overprotection behaviours (Clarke et al., 2013; Schneider et al., 2009).”
BackgroundResultBerrocal, Ó. M. C. (2018) · doi:10.35376/10324/33456 · Cited by 2 · see citing works
Oliver, B. E., Nesbit, R. J., McCloy, R., Harvey, K., & Dodd, H. F. (2022) · Research Square · doi:10.21203/rs.3.rs-1192030/v1 · Cited by 2 · see citing works
The Parent Trauma Response Questionnaire (PTRQ): Development and Preliminary ValidationPreprint
Williamson, V., Hiller, R. M., Meiser‐Stedman, R., Cresswell, C., Dalgleish, T., Fearon, P. R. M., Goodall, B., McKinnon, A., Smith, P., Wright, I. M., et al. (2018) · doi:10.31234/osf.io/gpck6 · Cited by 2 · see citing works
Overprotection as a Factor of Anxiety in Adolescents
Proskurnia, A. (2023) · Revista de Cercetare si Interventie Sociala · doi:10.33788/rcis.81.12 · Cited by 1 · see citing works
Smorti, M., Alsancak-Akbulut, C., Pozza, F., & Montiel, C. B. (2025) · The Journal of Psychology · doi:10.1080/00223980.2025.2473735 · Cited by 1 · see citing works
“Previous studies also showed that overprotective parents may also be high in anxiety in their relationship with their children (Clarke et al., 2013), which may serve as role models for their children (Oolup et al., 2016).”
Elfström, S., Rosengren, A., Andersson, R., Engelbrektsson, J., Isaksson, A., Meregalli, M., van Leuven, L., Lalouni, M., Öst, L., Ghaderi, A., et al. (2025) · Journal of Child Psychology and Psychiatry and Allied Disciplines · doi:10.1111/jcpp.14151 · Cited by 1 · see citing works
“The original version (POS) consists of 19 items intended to evaluate parenting engagement in behaviors aimed to protect the child from perceived dangers (Clarke et al., 2013).”
- Authors
- Clarke, K., Cooper, P., & Creswell, C.
- Affiliations
- University of Reading (GB)
- Stellenbosch University (ZA)
- Corresponding author
- Creswell, Cathy
- Venue
- Journal of Affective Disorders
- Publisher
- Elsevier BV
- Published
- 2013-11
- Volume
- 151
- Issue
- 2
- Pages
- 618-624
- ISSN
- 0165-0327 (ISSN-L)
- PMC
- PMC3808745
- OpenAlex
- W2170136166
- Cited by
- 149
- References
- 33
- Citations by year
- 2026: 6 · 2025: 20 · 2024: 29 · 2023: 16 · 2022: 19 · 2021: 15 · 2020: 9 · 2019: 9 · 2018: 11 · 2017: 6 · 2016: 5 · 2015: 4
- FWCI
- 3.33
- Type
- journal article
- Language
- en
- Open access
- hybrid
- doi.org
- Licence
- Locations
- Journal of Affective Disorders (publishedVersion, cc-by)
- Europe PMC (PubMed Central) (publishedVersion, cc-by)
- PubMed Central (publishedVersion, cc-by)
- PubMed (publishedVersion)
- CentAUR (University of Reading) (acceptedVersion)
- Funders
- Medical Research Council
- Topics
- Social Sciences › Psychology › Clinical Psychology › Child and Adolescent Psychosocial and Emotional Development
- Social Sciences › Psychology › Experimental and Cognitive Psychology › Anxiety, Depression, Psychometrics, Treatment, Cognitive Processes
- Health Sciences › Medicine › Public Health, Environmental and Occupational Health › Maternal Mental Health During Pregnancy and Postpartum
- Keywords
- parental overprotection, childhood anxiety, maternal anxiety, middle childhood, parent-report measures, observational assessment, internal consistency
- MeSH terms
- Anxiety Disorders, Child, Child Behavior Disorders, Female, Humans, Male, Mothers, Parent-Child Relations, Reproducibility of Results
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