Cited by 964Posttraumatic Stress Disorder ResearchChild Abuse and TraumaMigration, Health and Trauma

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Prevalence and Axis I comorbidity of full and partial posttraumatic stress disorder in the United States: Results from Wave 2 of the National Epidemiologic Survey on Alcohol and Related Conditions

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Pietrzak, Robert H., Goldstein, Risë B., Southwick, Steven M., Grant, Bridget F.·2011·Journal of Anxiety Disorders

DOI 10.1016/j.janxdis.2010.11.010PMC PMC3051041

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Abstract

The present study used data from the Wave 2 National Epidemiologic Survey on Alcohol and Related Conditions (n = 34,653) to examine lifetime Axis I psychiatric comorbidity of posttraumatic stress disorder (PTSD) in a nationally representative sample of U.S. adults. Lifetime prevalences ± standard errors of PTSD and partial PTSD were 6.4% ± 0.18 and 6.6% ± 0.18, respectively. Rates of PTSD and partial PTSD were higher among women (8.6% ± 0.26 and 8.6% ± 0.26) than men (4.1% ± 0.19 and 4.5% ± 0.21). Respondents with both PTSD and partial PTSD most commonly reported unexpected death of someone close, serious illness or injury to someone close, and sexual assault as their worst stressful experiences. PTSD and partial PTSD were associated with elevated lifetime rates of mood, anxiety, and substance use disorders, and suicide attempts. Respondents with partial PTSD generally had intermediate odds of comorbid Axis I disorders and psychosocial impairment relative to trauma controls and full PTSD.

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Factor Structure and Multi-Group Measurement Invariance of Posttraumatic Stress Disorder Symptoms Assessed by the PCL-5
Caldas, S. V., Contractor, A. A., Koh, S., & Wang, L. (2020) · Journal of Psychopathology and Behavioral Assessment · doi:10.1007/s10862-020-09800-z · Cited by 24
Depression, not PTSD, is associated with attentional biases for emotional visual cues in early traumatized individuals with PTSD
Wittekind, C. E., Muhtz, C., Jelinek, L., & Moritz, S. (2015) · Frontiers in Psychology · doi:10.3389/fpsyg.2014.01474 · Cited by 12
“Following Hauschildt et al. (2013), groups were dichotomized according to the presence of current depression (yes/no) as this disorder constitutes a common psychiatric comorbidity (Pietrzak et al., 2011) and is hardly considered as a confound in attentional bias research (Bar-Haim et al., 2007).”
Method
The Relationship between Negative Trauma-Related Cognitions and Psychosocial Functioning in Veterans with Posttraumatic Stress Disorder and Alcohol Use Disorder
Lyons, R. C., Haller, M. M., Curry, I., & Norman, S. B. (2019) · Substance Abuse · doi:10.1080/08897077.2019.1635957 · Cited by 12
“disorder (AUD) are commonly comorbid in general and veteran populations.(1,2) The co-occurrence of PTSD and AUD”
Background
Sadness and depression in PTSD
Wisco, B. E., Pugach, C. P., & Nomamiukor, F. O. (2020) · Elsevier eBooks · doi:10.1016/b978-0-12-816022-0.00004-1 · Cited by 12
Examination of a novel measure of trauma‐related drinking to cope
Hawn, S. E., Aggen, S. H., Cusack, S. E., Spit for Science Working Group, Dick, D. M., & Amstadter, A. B. (2020) · Journal of Clinical Psychology · doi:10.1002/jclp.22972 · Cited by 12
Residual Symptoms of Posttraumatic Stress Disorder and Alcohol Use Disorder Following Integrated Exposure Treatment Versus Coping Skills Treatment
Tripp, J. C., Angkaw, A. C., Schnurr, P. P., Trim, R. S., Haller, M. M., Davis, B. C., & Norman, S. B. (2020) · Journal of Traumatic Stress · doi:10.1002/jts.22552 · Cited by 12
Resting high frequency heart rate variability and PTSD symptomatology in Veterans: Effects of respiration, role in elevated heart rate, and extension to spouses
Smith, T. W., Deits‐Lebehn, C., Caska, C. M., Renshaw, K. D., & Uchino, B. N. (2020) · Biological Psychology · doi:10.1016/j.biopsycho.2020.107928 · Cited by 15
Emotion Regulation as a Mediator between Childhood Abuse and Neglect and Posttraumatic Stress Disorder in Women with Substance Use Disorders
Kahl, J., Holl, J., Grundmann, J., Lotzin, A., Hiller, P., Schroeder, K., Schulte, B., Barnow, S., & Schäfer, I. (2020) · Substance Use & Misuse · doi:10.1080/10826084.2020.1797805 · Cited by 12
Diagnostic validity of the PC-PTSD screen in college students
Hawn, S. E., Cusack, S. E., George, B. A., Sheerin, C. M., Spit for Science Working Group, Dick, D. M., & Amstadter, A. B. (2020) · Journal of American College Health · doi:10.1080/07448481.2020.1841768 · Cited by 13
Zur Komorbidität von Posttraumatischer Belastungsstörung und Sucht in biopsychosozialer Perspektive
Kapfhammer, H. (2021) · Neuropsychiatrie · doi:10.1007/s40211-020-00384-4 · Cited by 12
PTSD Symptoms and Hazardous Drinking Indicators among Trauma-Exposed Sexual Minority Women during Heightened Societal Stress
Helminen, E. C., Scheer, J. R., Jackson, S. D., Brisbin, C. D., Batchelder, A., Cascalheira, C. J., & Sullivan, T. P. (2021) · Behavioral Medicine · doi:10.1080/08964289.2021.2006132 · Cited by 12
Characterizing differences in psychiatric profiles between male and female veterans with epilepsy and psychogenic non-epileptic seizures
Sullivan‐Baca, E., Weitzner, D. S., Choudhury, T. K., Fadipe, M., Miller, B., & Haneef, Z. (2022) · Epilepsy Research · doi:10.1016/j.eplepsyres.2022.106995 · Cited by 12
Maternal Posttraumatic Stress Symptoms and Psychological Burden in Mothers of Korean Children With Anaphylaxis
Jeong, K., Kim, J., Chang, H. Y., Song, T. W., Kim, J. H., Shin, M., Min, T. K., Choi, S. H., Lee, Y. J., Kim, K. W., et al. (2022) · Allergy Asthma and Immunology Research · doi:10.4168/aair.2022.14.6.742 · Cited by 12
Negative emotion differentiation in trauma-exposed community members: Associations with posttraumatic stress disorder symptoms in daily life.
Pugach, C. P., Starr, L. R., Silvia, P. J., & Wisco, B. E. (2023) · Journal of Psychopathology and Clinical Science · doi:10.1037/abn0000851 · Cited by 12
Posttraumatic Stress Disorder and Suicidal Behavior: Indirect Effects of Impaired Social Functioning
Dutton, C. E., Rojas, S. M., Badour, C. L., Wanklyn, S. G., & Feldner, M. T. (2016) · Archives of Suicide Research · doi:10.1080/13811118.2016.1158680 · Cited by 12
“…Enduring Freedom and Operation Iraqi Freedom (OEF= OIF) veterans, screening positive for PTSD was predictive of suicidal ideation, while post-deployment social support (i.e., accessibility of family and friends) was associated with a lower likelihood of suicidal ideation (Pietrzak et al., 2010).”
Background
Clinical, Empirical, and Theoretical Rationale for Selection of Accelerated Resolution Therapy for Treatment of Post-traumatic Stress Disorder in VA and DoD Facilities
Kip, K. E., & Diamond, D. M. (2018) · Military Medicine · doi:10.1093/milmed/usy027 · Cited by 16
“Untreated and/or inadequately treated PTSD is associated with a range of health-related debilitating comorbidities, including depression and substance abuse disorders,(7) impairments in social and occupational functioning and overall quality of life, poorer perceived physical health and greater health care utilization…”
Background
Leveraging genetics to enhance the efficacy of PTSD pharmacotherapies
Miller, M. W. (2018) · Neuroscience Letters · doi:10.1016/j.neulet.2018.04.039 · Cited by 13
MDMA-Assisted Psychotherapy for Posttraumatic Stress Disorder: Implications for Social Work Practice and Research
Hutchison, C. A., & Bressi, S. K. (2018) · Clinical Social Work Journal · doi:10.1007/s10615-018-0676-3 · Cited by 13
Improving our understanding of the relationship between emotional abuse and substance use disorders: the mediating roles of negative urgency and posttraumatic stress disorder
Junglen, A. G., Hruska, B. J., Jensen, T., Boros, A. P., & Delahanty, D. L. (2019) · Substance Use & Misuse · doi:10.1080/10826084.2019.1594905 · Cited by 12
Standardized assessment of relationship functioning in OEF/OIF Veterans with and without PTSD
Caska, C. M., Smith, T. W., Renshaw, K. D., & Allen, S. N. (2019) · Military Psychology · doi:10.1080/08995605.2019.1645536 · Cited by 12
“By including Veterans with PTSD who had typical comorbid psychological problems (Pietrzak et al., 2011), couple type differences might reflect other conditions, as opposed to PTSD, specifically.”
Background
Posttraumatic Stress and Alcohol Use Among First Responders
Smith, L. J., Zegel, M., Bartlett, B. A., Lebeaut, A., & Vujanovic, A. A. (2019) · Advances in psychology, mental health, and behavioral studies (APMHBS) book series · doi:10.4018/978-1-5225-9803-9.ch003 · Cited by 12
Associations among betrayal trauma, dissociative posttraumatic stress symptoms, and substance use among women involved in the criminal legal system in three US cities
Chana, S. M., Wolford‐Clevenger, C., Faust, A., Hemberg, J., Ramaswamy, M., & Cropsey, K. L. (2021) · Drug and Alcohol Dependence · doi:10.1016/j.drugalcdep.2021.108924 · Cited by 15
“I’m not alone, my story matters”: Incarcerated women’s perspectives on the impact and acceptability of group psychotherapy involving imaginal exposure to sexual assault memories
Zielinski, M. J., Karlsson, M. E., & Bridges, A. J. (2021) · Health & Justice · doi:10.1186/s40352-021-00148-4 · Cited by 13
“These prevalence estimates greatly exceed those found among women in the community, especially women without a history of rape (Pietrzak et al., 2011; Zinzow et al., 2012).”
Background
Brief report: The influence of posttraumatic stress on unprotected sex among sexually active adolescent girls and boys involved in the child welfare system of the United States
Cavanaugh, C. E. (2013) · Journal of Adolescence · doi:10.1016/j.adolescence.2013.07.004 · Cited by 12
The moderating impact of interacting with distressed families of decedents on trauma exposure in medical examiner personnel.
Coleman, J. A., Delahanty, D., Schwartz, J. C., Murani, K., & Brondolo, E. (2016) · Psychological Trauma · doi:10.1037/tra0000097 · Cited by 13
Alcohol Abstainer Status and Prazosin Treatment in Association with Changes in Posttraumatic Stress Disorder Symptoms in Veterans with Comorbid Alcohol Use Disorder and Posttraumatic Stress Disorder
Verplaetse, T. L., Ralevski, E., Roberts, W., Gueorguieva, R. V., McKee, S. A., & Petrakis, I. L. (2019) · Alcoholism Clinical and Experimental Research · doi:10.1111/acer.13969 · Cited by 12
“AUD and PTSD are highly comorbid (Grant et al., 2015), with rates as high as 55% in Veterans (Smith et al., 2016).”
Influential
Posttraumatic Stress Disorder Symptomatology and Substance Use in an Outpatient Concurrent Disorders Sample
Patel, H., Holshausen, K., Oshri, A., Andrews, K., Penta, S., Raymond, H., McKinnon, M., Brasch, J., MacKillop, J., & Amlung, M. (2021) · The Canadian Journal of Psychiatry · doi:10.1177/07067437211011851 · Cited by 12
Examining Associations Between Negative Affect and Substance Use in Treatment-Seeking Samples: a Review of Studies Using Intensive Longitudinal Methods
Votaw, V. R., Tuchman, F. R., Piccirillo, M. L., Schwebel, F. J., & Witkiewitz, K. A. (2022) · Current Addiction Reports · doi:10.1007/s40429-022-00441-8 · Cited by 12
PTSD symptom course during the first year of college.
Read, J. P., Bachrach, R. L., Wright, A. G. C., & Colder, C. R. (2016) · Psychological Trauma Theory Research Practice and Policy · doi:10.1037/tra0000087 · Cited by 13
Negative Cognitions Prior to Trauma Predict Acute Posttraumatic Stress Disorder Symptomatology
Su, Y., & Chen, S. (2018) · Journal of Traumatic Stress · doi:10.1002/jts.22255 · Cited by 11
Drug use and hazardous drinking are associated with PTSD symptoms and symptom clusters in US Army Reserve/National Guard Soldiers
Homish, G. G., Hoopsick, R. A., Heavey, S. C., Homish, D. L., & Cornelius, J. R. (2018) · American Journal on Addictions · doi:10.1111/ajad.12829 · Cited by 11
Reduced electrophysiological habituation to novelty after trauma reflects heightened salience network detection
Zukerman, G., Pinhas, M., Ben‐Itzchak, E., & Fostick, L. (2019) · Neuropsychologia · doi:10.1016/j.neuropsychologia.2019.107226 · Cited by 11
“Post-Traumatic Stress Disorder (PTSD) prevalence rates are estimated between 3 and 12% among the U.S. adult population (Kessler et al., 1995; Pietrzak et al., 2011).”
Background
Resilience to traumatic stress in U.S. military veterans: Application of a novel classification approach in a nationally representative sample
Overstreet, C. M., DeViva, J. C., Amstadter, A. B., McCarthy, E., Southwick, S. M., & Pietrzak, R. H. (2021) · Journal of Psychiatric Research · doi:10.1016/j.jpsychires.2021.06.004 · Cited by 12
Self-citation
Associations between lifetime PTSD symptoms and current substance use disorders using a five-factor model of PTSD
Trautmann, S., Schönfeld, S., Behrendt, S., Schäfer, J., Höfler, M., Zimmermann, P. L., & Wïttchen, H. (2014) · Journal of Anxiety Disorders · doi:10.1016/j.janxdis.2014.11.009 · Cited by 12
EMDR in Older Adults With Posttraumatic Stress Disorder
Gielkens, E. M. J., Vink, M., Sobczak, S., Rosowsky, E., & van Alphen, B. (2018) · Journal of EMDR Practice and Research · doi:10.1891/1933-3196.12.3.132 · Cited by 11
Why do trauma survivors become depressed? Testing the behavioral model of depression in a nationally representative sample
Blakey, S. M., Yi, J. Y., Calhoun, P. S., Beckham, J. C., & Elbogen, E. B. (2018) · Psychiatry Research · doi:10.1016/j.psychres.2018.12.150 · Cited by 11
Posttraumatic Stress Disorder Is Highly Comorbid With Adult ADHD in Alcohol Use Disorder Inpatients
Ayoubi, H. E., Brunault, P., Barrault, S., Maugé, D., Baudin, G., Ballon, N., & El‐Hage, W. (2020) · Journal of Attention Disorders · doi:10.1177/1087054720903363 · Cited by 11
“By contrast, prevalence of PTSD was in the upper range findings reported in the literature (Dragan & Lis-Turlejska, 2007; Evren et al., 2018; Grundmann et al., 2018; Kessler et al., 1995; Pietrzak et al., 2011; Sells et al., 2016).”
Result
Survivor, family and professional experiences of psychosocial interventions for sexual abuse and violence: a qualitative evidence synthesis
Brown, S., Khasteganan, N., Carter, G. J., Brown, K., Caswell, R. J., Howarth, E., Feder, G. S., & O’Doherty, L. (2020) · Cochrane Database of Systematic Reviews · doi:10.1002/14651858.cd013648 · Cited by 11
Quality of Life After Violent Crime: The Impact of Acute Stress Disorder, Posttraumatic Stress Disorder, and Other Consequences
Lefebvre, C., Fortin, C. A., & Guay, S. (2020) · Journal of Traumatic Stress · doi:10.1002/jts.22623 · Cited by 11
Seeing the forest for the trees: Predicting attendance in trials for co-occurring PTSD and substance use disorders with a machine learning approach.
López‐Castro, T., Zhao, Y., Fitzpatrick, S., Ruglass, L. M., & Hien, D. A. (2021) · Journal of Consulting and Clinical Psychology · doi:10.1037/ccp0000688 · Cited by 12
Cognitive behavioral therapy-based treatments for insomnia and nightmares in adults with trauma symptoms: a systematic review
Isaac, F., Toukhsati, S. R., Benedetto, M. D., & Kennedy, G. A. (2022) · Current Psychology · doi:10.1007/s12144-022-03512-1 · Cited by 10

Authors: Pietrzak, R. H., Goldstein, R. B., Southwick, S. M., & Grant, B. F.
Affiliations: Yale University (US)
National Institutes of Health (US)
Corresponding author: Pietrzak, Robert H.
ORCID: Pietrzak, Robert H.
Goldstein, Risë B.
Southwick, Steven M.
Venue: Journal of Anxiety Disorders
Publisher: Elsevier BV
Published: 2011-04
Volume: 25
Issue: 3
Pages: 456-465
ISSN: 0887-6185 (ISSN-L)
DOI: 10.1016/j.janxdis.2010.11.010
PMC: PMC3051041
OpenAlex: W1969551391
Cited by: 963
References: 87
Citations by year: 2026: 32 · 2025: 55 · 2024: 69 · 2023: 69 · 2022: 88 · 2021: 79 · 2020: 102 · 2019: 84 · 2018: 75 · 2017: 70 · 2016: 64 · 2015: 56 · 2014: 51 · 2013: 40 · 2012: 18
FWCI: 24.53
Type: journal article
Language: en
Open access: green
www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov
Licence: www.elsevier.com/tdm/userlicense/1.0/ (tdm)
www.elsevier.com/legal/tdmrep-license (tdm)
Locations: Journal of Anxiety Disorders (publishedVersion)
PubMed (publishedVersion)
Europe PMC (PubMed Central) (acceptedVersion)
PubMed Central (acceptedVersion)
Funders: National Institute on Alcohol Abuse and Alcoholism (NIAAA)
National Institute on Drug Abuse (NIDA)
Intramural Program of the National Institutes of Health, National Institute on Alcohol Abuse and Alcoholism
National Center for Posttraumatic Stress Disorder
Topics: Social Sciences › Psychology › Clinical Psychology › Posttraumatic Stress Disorder Research
Social Sciences › Psychology › Clinical Psychology › Child Abuse and Trauma
Social Sciences › Psychology › Clinical Psychology › Migration, Health and Trauma
Keywords: post-traumatic stress disorder, PTSD prevalence, psychiatric comorbidity, Axis I disorders, mood disorders, anxiety disorders, substance use disorders, suicide attempts, sex differences, trauma exposure, sexual assault, unexpected death, psychosocial impairment, NESARC
MeSH terms: Adult, Female, Health Surveys, Humans, Life Change Events, Male, Middle Aged, Psychiatric Status Rating Scales, Sex Factors, Stress Disorders, Post-Traumatic, United States, Comorbidity, Prevalence, Mood Disorders, Substance-Related Disorders

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Prevalence and Axis I comorbidity of full and partial posttraumatic stress disorder in the United States: Results from Wave 2 of the National Epidemiologic Survey on Alcohol and Related Conditions

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