Cited by 964Posttraumatic Stress Disorder ResearchChild Abuse and TraumaMigration, Health and Trauma

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Prevalence and Axis I comorbidity of full and partial posttraumatic stress disorder in the United States: Results from Wave 2 of the National Epidemiologic Survey on Alcohol and Related Conditions

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Pietrzak, Robert H., Goldstein, Risë B., Southwick, Steven M., Grant, Bridget F.·2011·Journal of Anxiety Disorders

DOI 10.1016/j.janxdis.2010.11.010PMC PMC3051041

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Abstract

The present study used data from the Wave 2 National Epidemiologic Survey on Alcohol and Related Conditions (n = 34,653) to examine lifetime Axis I psychiatric comorbidity of posttraumatic stress disorder (PTSD) in a nationally representative sample of U.S. adults. Lifetime prevalences ± standard errors of PTSD and partial PTSD were 6.4% ± 0.18 and 6.6% ± 0.18, respectively. Rates of PTSD and partial PTSD were higher among women (8.6% ± 0.26 and 8.6% ± 0.26) than men (4.1% ± 0.19 and 4.5% ± 0.21). Respondents with both PTSD and partial PTSD most commonly reported unexpected death of someone close, serious illness or injury to someone close, and sexual assault as their worst stressful experiences. PTSD and partial PTSD were associated with elevated lifetime rates of mood, anxiety, and substance use disorders, and suicide attempts. Respondents with partial PTSD generally had intermediate odds of comorbid Axis I disorders and psychosocial impairment relative to trauma controls and full PTSD.

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Partial posttraumatic stress disorder revisited
Mylle, J. J. C., & Maes, M. H. J. (2002) · Journal of Affective Disorders · doi:10.1016/s0165-0327(02)00218-5 · Cited by 206 · cited 1×
““Partial PTSD” describes clinically significant PTSD symptoms in trauma-exposed individuals who do not meet full criteria for PTSD (Mylle & Maes, 2004; Weiss, Marmar, Schlenger, Fairbank, Jordan, Hough, & Kulka, 1992).”
Background
Post-traumatic stress disorder: The role of trauma, pre-existing psychiatric disorders, and gender
Hapke, U., Schumann, A., Rumpf, H.-J., John, U., & Meyer, C. (2006) · European Archives of Psychiatry and Clinical Neuroscience · doi:10.1007/s00406-006-0654-6 · Cited by 201
Full and partial PTSD among earthquake survivors in rural Taiwan
Lai, T.-J., Chang, C., Connor, K. M., Lee, L.-C., & Davidson, J. R. T. (2003) · Journal of Psychiatric Research · doi:10.1016/j.jpsychires.2003.08.005 · Cited by 193
Concordance between ICD-10 alcohol and drug use disorder criteria and diagnoses as measured by the AUDADIS-ADR, CIDI and SCAN: results of a cross-national study
Pull, C. B., Saunders, J. B., Mavreas, V. G., Cottler, L. B., Grant, B. F., Hasin, D. S., BLAINE, J. D., MAGER, D. E., & Üstün, B. T. (1997) · Drug and Alcohol Dependence · doi:10.1016/s0376-8716(97)00091-4 · Cited by 192
Self-citation
Subthreshold PTSD in Primary Care: Prevalence, Psychiatric Disorders, Healthcare Use, and Functional Status
Grubaugh, A. L., Magruder, K. M., Waldrop, A. E., Elhai, J. D., Knapp, R. G., & Frueh, B. C. (2005) · The Journal of Nervous and Mental Disease · doi:10.1097/01.nmd.0000180740.02644.ab · Cited by 159
Alcohol Dependence and Abuse Diagnoses: Concurrent Validity in a Nationally Representative Sample
Hasin, D. S., & Paykin, A. B. (1999) · Alcoholism Clinical and Experimental Research · doi:10.1111/j.1530-0277.1999.tb04036.x · Cited by 148 · cited 1×
“…Smith, & Grant, 1997) and validity (Canino et al., 1999; Cottler, Grant, Blaine, Mavreas, Pull, Hasin, Compton, Rubio-Stipec, & Mager, 1997; Hasin & Paykin, 1999; Hasin, Muthuen, Wisnicki, & Grant, 1994; Hasin, Schuckit, Martin, Grant, Bucholz, & Helzer, 2003; Pull, Saunders, Mavreas,…”
Predictors and outcomes of posttraumatic stress disorder in World War II veterans exposed to mustard gas.
Schnurr, P. P., Ford, J. D., Friedman, M. J., Green, B. L., Dain, B. J., & Sengupta, A. (2000) · Journal of Consulting and Clinical Psychology · doi:10.1037/0022-006x.68.2.258 · Cited by 146 · cited 4×
“PTSD was also associated with greater past-month psychosocial dysfunction, which replicates prior research (Stein et al., 1997; Schnurr et al., 2000; Breslau et al., 2004a; Jeon et al., 2007; Pietrzak et al., 2009).”
ResultInfluential
Effects of varying diagnostic criteria for posttraumatic stress disorder are endorsing the concept of partial PTSD
Schützwohl, M., & Maercker, A. R. A. (1999) · Journal of Traumatic Stress · doi:10.1023/a:1024706702133 · Cited by 143 · cited 1×
“…Connor, Lee, & Davidson, 2004; Marshall, Olfson, Hellman, Blanco, Guardino, & Struening, 2001; Pietrzak, Goldstein, Southwick, & Grant, in press; Schutzwohl & Maercker, 1999; Stein, Walker, Hazen, & Forde, 1997; Zlotnick, Franklin, & Zimmerman, 2002) have found intermediate levels of…”
The Validity of DSM‐IV Alcohol Dependence: What Do We Know and What Do We Need to Know?
Hasin, D. S., Schuckit, M. A., Martin, C. S., Grant, B. F., Bucholz, K. K., & Helzer, J. E. (2003) · Alcoholism Clinical and Experimental Research · doi:10.1097/01.alc.0000060878.61384.ed · Cited by 140
Self-citation
Trauma And The Vietnam War Generation: Report Of Findings From The National Vietnam Veterans Readjustment Study
Kulka (1990) · Cited by 139
Cumulative Adversity and Posttraumatic Stress Disorder: Evidence From a Diverse Community Sample of Young Adults.
Lloyd, D. A., & Turner, R. J. (2003) · American Journal of Orthopsychiatry · doi:10.1037/0002-9432.73.4.381 · Cited by 134 · cited 4×
“…while the association between PTSD and drug use disorders may be primarily causally driven by PTSD (Breslau et al., 2003; Chilcoat & Breslau, 1998; Lloyd & Turner, 2003), a shared genetic association has also been observed (McLeod, Koenen, Meyer, Lyons, Eisen, True, & Goldberg, 2001; Xian,…”
BackgroundResultInfluential
Alcohol Use, Mental Health Status and Psychological Well-being 2 Years After the World Trade Center Attacks in New York City
Adams, R. E., Boscarino, J. A., & Galea, S. (2006) · The American Journal of Drug and Alcohol Abuse · doi:10.1080/00952990500479522 · Cited by 131
Partial and full PTSD in Brazilian ambulance workers: Prevalence and impact on health and on quality of life
Berger, W., Figueira, I., Maurat, A. M., Bucassio, É. P., Vieira, I., Jardim, S. R., Coutinho, E. S. F., Mari, J. J., & Mendlowicz, M. V. (2007) · Journal of Traumatic Stress · doi:10.1002/jts.20242 · Cited by 125 · cited 2×
“, 2000; Watson & Daniels, 2008), ambulance workers (Berger, Figueira, Maurat, Bucassio, Vieira, Jardim, Coutinho, Mari, & Mendlowicz, 2007), and survivors of toxic chemical exposures, disasters, and other traumas (Adams, Boscarino, & Galea, 2006; Berger et al., 2007; Breslau et al., 2004a; Jeon et al., 2007; Lai, Chan…”
Subsyndromal posttraumatic stress disorder is associated with health and psychosocial difficulties in veterans of Operations Enduring Freedom and Iraqi Freedom
Pietrzak, R. H., Goldstein, M. B., Malley, J. C., Johnson, D. C., & Southwick, S. M. (2009) · Depression and Anxiety · doi:10.1002/da.20574 · Cited by 121
Self-citation
Personality Traits, Coping Style, and Perceived Threat as Predictors of Posttraumatic Stress Disorder After Exposure to a Terrorist Attack: A Prospective Study
Gil, S., & Caspi, Y. (2006) · Psychosomatic Medicine · doi:10.1097/01.psy.0000242124.21796.f8 · Cited by 111 · cited 1×
“It is also consistent with evidence that indirect exposure to trauma is associated with the development of PTSD (Gil & Caspi, 2006; Kessler et al., 1995; Vila, Porche, & Mouren-Simeoni, 1999; Zimering, Gulliver, Knight, Munroe, & Keane, 2006), and that PTSD symptom structure following indirect…”
Background
Genetic and environmental influences on the relationship among combat exposure, posttraumatic stress disorder symptoms, and alcohol use
McLeod, D. S., Koenen, K. C., Meyer, J. M., Lyons, M. J., Eisen, S. A., True, W., & Goldberg, J. H. (2001) · Journal of Traumatic Stress · doi:10.1023/a:1011157800050 · Cited by 104
The latent structure of post-traumatic stress disorder: tests of invariance by gender and trauma type
Chung, H., & Breslau, N. (2008) · Psychological Medicine · doi:10.1017/s0033291707002589 · Cited by 101 · cited 1×
“…of PTSD in women is also consistent with these surveys, though not entirely understood, as it is not fully explained by higher occurrences of sexual assault and rape, preexisting depression or anxiety disorders, or sex-related bias in symptom reporting (Chung & Breslau, 2008; Tolin & Foa, 2006).”
Result
Posttraumatic stress disorder in disaster relief workers following direct and indirect trauma exposure to Ground Zero*
Zimering, R. T., Gulliver, S. B., Knight, J., Munroe, J., & Keane, T. M. (2006) · Journal of Traumatic Stress · doi:10.1002/jts.20143 · Cited by 88
Validity of the bi‐axial dependence concept: a test in the US general population
Hasin, D. S., MUTHUEN, B., Wisnicki, K. S., & Grant, B. F. (1994) · Addiction · doi:10.1111/j.1360-0443.1994.tb03333.x · Cited by 86
Self-citation
A descriptive analysis of PTSD chronicity in Vietnam veterans
Schnurr, P. P., Lunney, C. A., Sengupta, A., & Waelde, L. C. (2003) · Journal of Traumatic Stress · doi:10.1023/b:jots.0000004077.22408.cf · Cited by 86 · cited 2×
“…& Forde, 1997; Zlotnick, Franklin, & Zimmerman, 2002) have found intermediate levels of psychiatric comorbidity and functional impairment compared to trauma-exposed individuals without PTSD and those with full PTSD. Partial PTSD can persist for years (Jeon et al., 2007; Schnurr et al., 2003).”
Background
An 18-Month Longitudinal Study of Posttraumatic Disorders in Children Who Were Taken Hostage in Their School
Vila, G., Porche, L. M., & Mouren‐Siméoni, M. (1999) · Psychosomatic Medicine · doi:10.1097/00006842-199911000-00005 · Cited by 82 · cited 2×
“0 years) replicates previous evidence from pediatric samples that direct exposure to a traumatic event is associated with a more severe and protracted clinical course (Kim, Kim, Kim, Shin, Cho, Choi, Ahn, Lee, Ryu, & Yun, 2009; Vila et al., 1999).”
BackgroundInfluential
Personality disorders associated with full and partial posttraumatic stress disorder in the U.S. population: Results from Wave 2 of the National Epidemiologic Survey on Alcohol and Related Conditions
Pietrzak, R. H., Goldstein, R. B., Southwick, S. M., & Grant, B. F. (2010) · Journal of Psychiatric Research · doi:10.1016/j.jpsychires.2010.09.013 · Cited by 72
Self-citation
Partial versus full PTSD in the Korean community: prevalence, duration, correlates, comorbidity, and dysfunctions
Jeon, H. J., Suh, T., Lee, H. J., Hahm, B., Lee, J., Cho, S., Lee, Y. R., Chang, S. M., & Cho, M. J. (2006) · Depression and Anxiety · doi:10.1002/da.20270 · Cited by 71 · cited 12×
“Prior research has also similarly observed that specific types of traumas, such as unexpected death or serious illness or injury to someone close, as well as sexual assault are associated with increased risk of PTSD (Breslau et al., 1998; Hapke, Schumann, Rumpf, John,& Meyer, 2006; Jeon et al., 2007; Kessler et al., 1…”
BackgroundResultInfluential
Indirect exposure to the September 11 terrorist attacks: Does symptom structure resemble PTSD?
Suvak, M. K., Maguen, S., Litz, B. T., Silver, R. C., & Holman, E. A. (2008) · Journal of Traumatic Stress · doi:10.1002/jts.20289 · Cited by 41
Post-traumatic stress disorder and comorbidity: Psychobiological approaches to differential diagnosis.
Friedman, M. J., & Yehuda, R. (1995) · Cited by 41
A 6-Month Follow-Up Study of Posttraumatic Stress and Anxiety/Depressive Symptoms in Korean Children After Direct or Indirect Exposure to a Single Incident of Trauma
Kim, B., Kim, J.-W., Kim, H., Shin, M., Cho, S.-C., Choi, N. H., Ahn, H.-N., Lee, S.-Y., Ryu, J., & Yun, M.-J. (2009) · The Journal of Clinical Psychiatry · doi:10.4088/jcp.08m04896 · Cited by 36
The language barrier and institutional provincialism in science
Stolerman, I. P., & Stenius, K. (2007) · Drug and Alcohol Dependence · doi:10.1016/j.drugalcdep.2007.07.010 · Cited by 33
Full and Partial Post-Traumatic Stress Disorder among World War II Prisoners of War
Favaro, A., Tenconi, E., Colombo, G., & Santonastaso, P. (2006) · Psychopathology · doi:10.1159/000093522 · Cited by 33
Three-Year Follow-Up of Syndromal Antisocial Behavior in Adults
Goldstein, R. B., & Grant, B. F. (2009) · The Journal of Clinical Psychiatry · doi:10.4088/jcp.08m04545 · Cited by 31 · cited 1×
“…in Wave 1 (Compton, Conway, Stinson, Colliver, & Grant, 2005; Grant et al., 2004c; Grant et al., 2005c); antisocial PD was assessed at both waves (Goldstein & Grant, 2009); and schizotypal, narcissistic, and borderline PDs were assessed in Wave 2 (Grant et al., 2008; Stinson, Dawson, Goldstein,…”
BackgroundSelf-citation
Post-Traumatic Stress Disorder Symptoms in the Files of Australian Servicemen Hospitalized in 1942–1952
Watson, P. B., & Daniels, B. A. (2008) · Australasian Psychiatry · doi:10.1080/10398560701616213 · Cited by 5 · cited 1×
“…Phelps, Hunt, Holmes, Felker, Klevens, & McFall, 2007; Kulka, 1990; Pietrzak, Goldstein, Malley, Johnson, & Southwick, 2009; Schnurr et al., 2000; Watson & Daniels, 2008), ambulance workers (Berger, Figueira, Maurat, Bucassio, Vieira, Jardim, Coutinho, Mari, & Mendlowicz, 2007), and survivors of…”

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See all 964

Authors: Pietrzak, R. H., Goldstein, R. B., Southwick, S. M., & Grant, B. F.
Affiliations: Yale University (US)
National Institutes of Health (US)
Corresponding author: Pietrzak, Robert H.
ORCID: Pietrzak, Robert H.
Goldstein, Risë B.
Southwick, Steven M.
Venue: Journal of Anxiety Disorders
Publisher: Elsevier BV
Published: 2011-04
Volume: 25
Issue: 3
Pages: 456-465
ISSN: 0887-6185 (ISSN-L)
DOI: 10.1016/j.janxdis.2010.11.010
PMC: PMC3051041
OpenAlex: W1969551391
Cited by: 963
References: 87
Citations by year: 2026: 32 · 2025: 55 · 2024: 69 · 2023: 69 · 2022: 88 · 2021: 79 · 2020: 102 · 2019: 84 · 2018: 75 · 2017: 70 · 2016: 64 · 2015: 56 · 2014: 51 · 2013: 40 · 2012: 18
FWCI: 24.53
Type: journal article
Language: en
Open access: green
www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov
Licence: www.elsevier.com/tdm/userlicense/1.0/ (tdm)
www.elsevier.com/legal/tdmrep-license (tdm)
Locations: Journal of Anxiety Disorders (publishedVersion)
PubMed (publishedVersion)
Europe PMC (PubMed Central) (acceptedVersion)
PubMed Central (acceptedVersion)
Funders: National Institute on Alcohol Abuse and Alcoholism (NIAAA)
National Institute on Drug Abuse (NIDA)
Intramural Program of the National Institutes of Health, National Institute on Alcohol Abuse and Alcoholism
National Center for Posttraumatic Stress Disorder
Topics: Social Sciences › Psychology › Clinical Psychology › Posttraumatic Stress Disorder Research
Social Sciences › Psychology › Clinical Psychology › Child Abuse and Trauma
Social Sciences › Psychology › Clinical Psychology › Migration, Health and Trauma
Keywords: post-traumatic stress disorder, PTSD prevalence, psychiatric comorbidity, Axis I disorders, mood disorders, anxiety disorders, substance use disorders, suicide attempts, sex differences, trauma exposure, sexual assault, unexpected death, psychosocial impairment, NESARC
MeSH terms: Adult, Female, Health Surveys, Humans, Life Change Events, Male, Middle Aged, Psychiatric Status Rating Scales, Sex Factors, Stress Disorders, Post-Traumatic, United States, Comorbidity, Prevalence, Mood Disorders, Substance-Related Disorders

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Prevalence and Axis I comorbidity of full and partial posttraumatic stress disorder in the United States: Results from Wave 2 of the National Epidemiologic Survey on Alcohol and Related Conditions

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