Cited by 200Anxiety, Depression, Psychometrics, Treatment, Cognitive ProcessesPsychometric Methodologies and TestingPsychological Testing and Assessment

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More reasons to be straightforward: Findings and norms for two scales relevant to social anxiety

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Rodebaugh, Thomas L., Heimberg, Richard G., Brown, Patrick J., Fernandez, Katya C., Blanco, Carlos, Schneier, Franklin R., Liebowitz, Michael R.·2011·Journal of Anxiety Disorders

DOI 10.1016/j.janxdis.2011.02.002PMC PMC3090265

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Abstract

The validity of both the Social Interaction Anxiety Scale and Brief Fear of Negative Evaluation scale has been well-supported, yet the scales have a small number of reverse-scored items that may detract from the validity of their total scores. The current study investigates two characteristics of participants that may be associated with compromised validity of these items: higher age and lower levels of education. In community and clinical samples, the validity of each scale's reverse-scored items was moderated by age, years of education, or both. The straightforward items did not show this pattern. To encourage the use of the straightforward items of these scales, we provide normative data from the same samples as well as two large student samples. We contend that although response bias can be a substantial problem, the reverse-scored questions of these scales do not solve that problem and instead decrease overall validity.

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Diagnostic and Statistical Manual of Mental Disorders
Williams, J. B. W., & First, M. B. (2013) · Oxford University Press eBooks · doi:10.1093/acrefore/9780199975839.013.104 · Cited by 109,845
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“Increasing age is correlated with decreases in cognitive abilities such as explicit memory, reasoning, and processing speed (Salthouse, 1996, 2000; Schaie & Willis, 1993).”
Background
Measurement of social-evaluative anxiety.
Watson, D., & Friend, R. (1969) · Journal of Consulting and Clinical Psychology · doi:10.1037/h0027806 · Cited by 3,467 · cited 1×
“The BFNE (Leary, 1983) is a 12-item measure based on the original Fear of Negative Evaluation scale (FNE; Watson & Friend, 1969) and employing a 1 (not at all) to 5 (extremely) Likert-type scale.”
Method
Development and validation of measures of social phobia scrutiny fear and social interaction anxiety11Editor’s note: This article was written before the development of some contemporary measures of social phobia, such as the Social Phobia and Anxiety Inventory (Turner et al., 1989). We have invited this article for publication because of the growing interest in the scales described therein. S.T.
Mattick, R. P., & Clarke, J. C. (1998) · Behaviour Research and Therapy · doi:10.1016/s0005-7967(97)10031-6 · Cited by 3,367 · cited 2×
“The Brief Fear of Negative Evaluation scale (BFNE; Leary, 1983) and the Social Interaction Anxiety Scale (SIAS; Mattick & Clarke, 1998) both have a small number of reverse-scored items that have demonstrated problematic reliability and validity across multiple studies (Carleton et al., 2009; Duke,…”
BackgroundMethod
Applied Linear Regression
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Diagnostic and Statistical Manual of Mental Disorders
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A brief version of the Fear of Negative Evaluation Scale
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“The measure related highly to the FNE and demonstrated very good test-retest reliability, internal consistency, and convergent validity (Leary, 1983).”
BackgroundMethod
Aging and measures of processing speed
Salthouse, T. A. (2000) · Biological Psychology · doi:10.1016/s0301-0511(00)00052-1 · Cited by 1,114 · cited 3×
“Increasing age is correlated with decreases in cognitive abilities such as explicit memory, reasoning, and processing speed (Salthouse, 1996, 2000; Schaie & Willis, 1993).”
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“It is also notable that the upper bound cut-off is comparable to the clinical cut-offs established for each scale (Brown et al, 1997; Fresco et al, 2003) and that the lower bound cut-off is above the norm established for these scales (Rodebaugh et al., 2011; Gillis, Haaga, & Ford, 1995).”
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“For this study we used only the 17 non-reverse items of the scale (Rodebaugh et al., 2011).”
Method
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“A straightforward score of 28 has been found to correspond to a cutoff for possible social anxiety disorder (Rodebaugh et al., 2011).”
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Safety Behaviors and Social Anxiety: An Examination of the Social Phobia Safety Behaviours Scale
Kocovski, N. L., MacKenzie, M. B., Albiani, J. J., Battista, S. R., Noel, S., Fleming, J. E., & Antony, M. M. (2015) · Journal of Psychopathology and Behavioral Assessment · doi:10.1007/s10862-015-9498-6 · Cited by 13
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“Rodebaugh et al. (2011) have also suggested that ignoring the reverse-scored items may enhance the validity of the BFNE to discriminate high and low social anxiety disorder, which may need to be considered for future studies.”
Background
The thin-ideal across two cultural contexts: The role of body image inflexibility and the fear of negative evaluation.
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“Social anxiety was assessed using the straightforward items (Rodebaugh et al., 2011) of the Social Interaction Anxiety Scale (Mattick & Clarke, 1998).”
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“Additionally, negatively worded items are difficult to process, especially for people of higher age or lower levels of education (Rodebaugh et al., 2011; Rosenthal, 1980).”
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“SIAS-S.”
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“Studies have demonstrated that the reverse-worded items do not contribute and potentially detract from the validity of the scale (for review, see Rodebaugh et al., 2011).”
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“socre of Rodebaugh et al. (2011) for possible clinical levels”
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“The Social Interaction Anxiety Scale – Straightforward (S-SIAS) 38,39 describes anxiety-related reactions to a variety of social interaction situations to measure social anxiety.”
Influential
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“, Rodebaugh et al., 2007, for a review and extension), the present studies utilized only the straightforward SIAS items (S-SIAS) for all analyses (α = .93). To the best of our knowledge, no evidence has been found that the omission of the reverse-scored items of the SIAS results in reduced validity despite repeated te…”
MethodSelf-citation
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Self-citation
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Investigating stereotypes of social anxiety
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“Overall, research on the scale suggests good to excellent reliability and good construct and convergent validity (see Heimberg & Turk, 2002 for a review), particularly when the reverse-scored items are omitted, as they are here (see Rodebaugh et al., 2011 for a review).”
BackgroundSelf-citation
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“Regarding social anxiety, 22.3% of the sample scored above the clinical cutoff for social anxiety disorder (SAD; per Rodebaugh et al., 2011).”
BackgroundInfluential
Neural dynamics of social anxiety during and after anxiety-provoking and relaxation-inducing: A task and resting-state fMRI study
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“74), ranging from 0 to 61, and approximately 32% of the participants reported scores above the cutoff score for clinical levels of SA (28) suggested by Rodebaugh et al. (2011). Mean levels of SA did not differ significantly across the two samples, t(114.”
Background
Social Anxiety and Misinterpretation of the Five Facet Mindfulness Questionnaire Describe Subscale
Jensen, D., Bruce, L. C., Heimberg, R., Matt, L. M., & Morrison, A. S. (2016) · Journal of Cognitive Psychotherapy · doi:10.1891/0889-8391.30.3.168 · Cited by 4
“4% of the sample scored above the clinical cut-off proposed for the SIAS-S (SIAS-S 28; Rodebaugh et al., 2011), a proportion that is representative of the student body at this large, public, urban university, suggesting that a wide range of social anxiety scores were provided by our participants.”
BackgroundInfluentialSelf-citation
"r u mad @ me?": Social anxiety and interpretation bias in computer-mediated contexts
Kingsbury, M. K. (2014) · Carleton University's Institutional Repository (MacOdrum Library, Carleton University) · doi:10.22215/etd/2014-10508 · Cited by 4
“However, other authors have reported a lack of gender differences in community samples of young adults and college students (Mattick & Clarke, 1998; Rodebaugh et al., 2011).”
Background
Faces in a Crowd: High Socially Anxious Individuals Estimate that More People Are Looking at Them than Low Socially Anxious Individuals
Bolt, O. C., Ehlers, A., & Clark, D. M. (2014) · PLoS ONE · doi:10.1371/journal.pone.0106400 · Cited by 3
“= 45 or , = 31) [12,13] and respectively scored in pre-determined high and low ranges on the Albany Panic and Phobia Questionnaire, social phobia subscale (APPQSP) [14].”
Background
The Relationship Between Body Mass Index, Implicit Weight Bias, and Social Anxiety in Undergraduate Women
Kaplan, S. C., Butler, R. M., & Heimberg, R. G. (2023) · Cognitive Therapy and Research · doi:10.1007/s10608-023-10404-6 · Cited by 3
“A score of 28 or above on this scale indicates a probable diagnosis of SAD (Rodebaugh et al., 2011).”
Self-citation
Exploring linguistic correlates of social anxiety in romantic stories
Fernandez, K. C., Gordon, E. A., Rodebaugh, T. L., & Heimberg, R. G. (2016) · Cognitive Behaviour Therapy · doi:10.1080/16506073.2016.1184711 · Cited by 3
“Social anxiety disorder (SAD) involves persistent and excessive fear of negative evaluation in and avoidance of social situations that cause distress and impairment (American Psychiatric Association, 2013).”
BackgroundInfluentialSelf-citation
Psychometric properties of the Ryerson Social Anxiety Scales in individuals with social anxiety disorder
Tsekova, V., Lenton‐Brym, A. P., Rogojanski, J., Hood, H. K., Vorstenbosch, V., McCabe, R. E., & Antony, M. M. (2021) · Anxiety Stress & Coping · doi:10.1080/10615806.2020.1870108 · Cited by 3
“The BFNE-S has demonstrated excellent internal consistency (e.g., Rodebaugh et al., 2011).”
Method
Goal-directed utilization of threat-relevant and non-threat-relevant expressions in social anxiety: A general deficit related to social-emotional cues in an endogenous cueing task
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Validation of the Ambivalent and Purposeful Engagement – Trait Measure
Fernandez, K. C., Langer, J., Rodebaugh, T. L., Jakatdar, T. A., Heimberg, R. G., & Lenze, E. J. (2013) · Anxiety Stress & Coping · doi:10.1080/10615806.2013.838228 · Cited by 2
Self-citation
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“The eight-item straightforward coded subscale of the BFNE (BFNE-S) has shown better reliability and validity than the fouritem reverse coded subscale [33-45].”
Method
Clinical Assessment of Late-Life Anxiety
Gould, C. E., Kok, B. C., Ma, V. K., & Edelstein, B. A. (2021) · Cambridge University Press eBooks · doi:10.1017/9781139087469.006 · Cited by 2
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“3 The three reverse-coded items decrease validity among college student young adults samples (Rodebaugh et al., 2011), thus we used the 17 remaining items ( α = .95), per prior work among college samples who use substances (e.g., Morris & Buckner, 2023).”
Cognitive Behavioral Therapy for Anxiety Disorders
(2021) · Cambridge University Press eBooks · doi:10.1017/9781108355605.003 · Cited by 1
Psychoeducation
Hope, D. A., Heimberg, R. G., & Turk, C. L. (2019) · Oxford University Press eBooks · doi:10.1093/med-psych/9780190247591.003.0002 · Cited by 1
Self-citation
Understanding the Dimensions of Post-Event Processing: Applying a Bifactor Modeling Approach to the EPEPQ-15
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“Notably, the mean social anxiety level in both samples was higher than community and student norms, and as expected, was lower, but more variable, compared with clinical norms (Rodebaugh et al., 2011).”
Result
Can cognitive restructuring serve as a brief stand-alone treatment for social anxiety disorder in adolescence? An exploratory clinical trial
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“The Social Inter-action Anxiety Scale (SIAS; Mattick & Clarke, 1998) is a 20-item measure 1 assessing anxiety related to differ - ent social situations measured (from 0 = “ not at all ” to 4 = “ extremely ”).”
Influential
Social anxiety and weight interact with body salience to affect experiences of social exclusion
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“The Straightforward Social Interaction Anxiety Scale (SIAS-S; Rodebaugh et al., 2006; Rodebaugh et al., 2011) comprises 17 items assessing anxiety during social interactions.”
Self-citation
Are online norms‐based alcohol interventions efficacious for college students with higher social anxiety?
Walukevich‐Dienst, K., Graupensperger, S. A., Piccirillo, M. L., Smith‐LeCavalier, K. N., Acolin, J., & Larimer, M. E. (2025) · Alcoholism Clinical and Experimental Research · doi:10.1111/acer.70077 · Cited by 1
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“Within social relationships, people high in social anxiety show several communication deficits including less selfdisclosure, lower intimacy, and less emotional expression (Cuming & Rapee, 2010; Fernandez & Rodebaugh, 2011; Montesi et al., 2012; Plasencia et al., 2016; Sparrevohn & Rapee, 2009).”
Background
A Multidimensional Approach to the Study of Social Anxiety and Friendships
Fernandez, K. C. (2014) · Open Scholarship Institutional Repository (Washington University in St. Louis) · doi:10.7936/k7z0369k
“Despite the comorbidity between social anxiety and depression, there is evidence that SAD is associated with impairment in friendships above and beyond depression; for example, Rodebaugh (2009) found a specific link between SAD and perceived friendship quality, above and beyond a variety of demographic variables and o…”
BackgroundInfluentialSelf-citation
Manipulation of Negative Social Evaluative Fears on Body Dissatisfaction and Eating Behaviors: Does Fear of Social Evaluation Lead to Disordered Eating?
Levinson, C. A. (2015) · Open Scholarship Institutional Repository (Washington University in St. Louis) · doi:10.7936/k72r3pwh
“Participants’ social anxiety scores (as measured by the Straightforward Social Interaction Anxiety Scale; Mattick & Clark, 1998; Rodebaugh et al., 2011) ranged from very low (0) to very high (65), with a mean score of 25.00.”
MethodInfluential
Social Anxiety and Gaze Aversion: Manipulating Eye Contact in a Social Interaction
Langer, J. (2011) · Open Scholarship Institutional Repository (Washington University in St. Louis) · doi:10.7936/k75t3hk1
“Rodebaugh et al. (2011) review evidence that suggests that the reverse-scored items fail to load on the same factor as the other items and are less related to social anxiety and more related to extraversion than is desirable.”
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Neczypor, B. N. (2015) · OhioLink ETD Center (Ohio Library and Information Network)
The Fear and Avoidance Hierarchy
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Additional Tools for Challenging Automatic Thoughts
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The Impact of Mindfulness Training on Post-Event Processing in Social Anxiety: A Multi-Method Investigation
Lewis, E. M. (2019) · doi:10.31390/gradschool_theses.5122
“…20-item measure, the 17 straightforward worded items were used given that the total score of these items appear to be more valid indicators of social anxiety than the total score including the reverse scored items in both undergraduate and clinical samples (for review, see Rodebaugh et al., 2011).”
Method
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Kraft, J. D., Grant, D., Nagel, K. M., Deros, D. E., Frosio, K. E., Taylor, D. L., & White, E. J. (2021) · Psychiatric quarterly · doi:10.1007/s11126-021-09958-z
“92), Social Interaction Anxiety Scale-straight forward (SIAS-sf; [15, 41, 42], Social Phobia Scale (SPS [15]; α = .”
Background
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Self-citation
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Hope, D. A., Heimberg, R. G., & Turk, C. L. (2019) · Oxford University Press eBooks · doi:10.1093/med-psych/9780190247591.003.0011
Self-citation
Exposure and Cognitive Restructuring
Hope, D. A., Heimberg, R. G., & Turk, C. L. (2019) · Oxford University Press eBooks · doi:10.1093/med-psych/9780190247591.003.0007
Self-citation
Emotional Working Memory Training and Internet-Based Cognitive-Behavioural Therapy Reduce Symptoms of Social Anxiety Disorder: A Randomised Controlled Trial (Preprint)Preprint
du Toit, S. A., Schweizer, S., & Wong, Q. J. J. (2023) · doi:10.31234/osf.io/yp6qd
Social Anxiety is Related to Worse Recognition Memory of Angry Faces
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“The Social Interaction Anxiety Scale-Straightforward (SIAS-S; Rodebaugh et al., 2011) is a revised version of the SIAS (Mattick & Clarke, 1998) that excludes the reverse-worded items, which detract from the validity of the total score.”
Measuring ethnocultural empathy in Japanese undergraduates: the validity and reliability of the Japanese version of the scale of ethnocultural empathy
Ostman, D., & Xethakis, L. J. (2024) · Frontiers in Education · doi:10.3389/feduc.2024.1465304
An Intervention for Applying Learning to Self and Others (I-ALSO): A Multi-Arm Randomized Experiment of Learning for Others in a College Student Mental Health Intervention
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“When excluding the reverse-scored items, the factorial, convergent, and discriminant validity of this measure has consistently been supported (Rodebaugh et al., 2011).”
Computational Attitudes to Drug Discovery in Anxiety
Attri, M., Raghav, A., Vatsha, P., Agrawal, M., Singhal, M., Chaudhary, H., Sahoo, N. K., & Prajapati, B. G. (2025) · Wiley eBooks · doi:10.1002/9781394242474.ch15
Preface
Hope, D. A., Heimberg, R. G., & Turk, C. L. (2019) · Oxford University Press eBooks · doi:10.1093/med-psych/9780190247591.002.0008
Self-citation
About the Authors
Hope, D. A., Heimberg, R. G., & Turk, C. L. (2019) · Oxford University Press eBooks · doi:10.1093/med-psych/9780190247591.002.0011
Self-citation
Assessment of Social Anxiety Disorder
Hope, D. A., Heimberg, R. G., & Turk, C. L. (2019) · Oxford University Press eBooks · doi:10.1093/med-psych/9780190247591.005.0001
Self-citation
About ✓Treatments That Work
(2019) · Oxford University Press eBooks · doi:10.1093/med-psych/9780190247591.002.0006
Assessment Measures
Hope, D. A., Heimberg, R. G., & Turk, C. L. (2019) · Oxford University Press eBooks · doi:10.1093/med-psych/9780190247591.005.0002
Self-citation
Copyright Page
Hope, D. A., Heimberg, R. G., & Turk, C. L. (2019) · Oxford University Press eBooks · doi:10.1093/med-psych/9780190247591.002.0004
Self-citation
Introduction
Hope, D. A., Heimberg, R. G., & Turk, C. L. (2019) · Oxford University Press eBooks · doi:10.1093/med-psych/9780190247591.002.0010
Self-citation
Measurement invariance of the Straightforwardly-Worded Social Interaction Anxiety Scale and Associations with life satisfaction among emerging adults attending University in 10 countries
Sette, S., Coplan, R. J., Ooi, L. L., Zuffianò, A., Xiao, B., Wong, Q. J. J., Rapee, R. M., Oh, W., Liu, J., Kim, Y., et al. (2025) · Journal of Anxiety Disorders · doi:10.1016/j.janxdis.2025.103092
Psychometric Properties of the Social Interaction Anxiety Scale (SIAS) and the Social Phobia Scale (SPS) Variants in Turkish Clinical and General Population Samples
Gök, B. G., Ișıklı, S., Aslan, S. T., & Demirsöz, T. (2026) · Psychiatric Quarterly · doi:10.1007/s11126-025-10245-4
Characterising Individuals with Social Anxiety Differentiated by Aetiological Beliefs: Clinical Outcomes and Cognitive-Behavioural Maintaining Processes
Beeston, O., O’Young, A., Considine, K., & Wong, Q. J. J. (2026) · Journal of Psychopathology and Behavioral Assessment · doi:10.1007/s10862-026-10301-8
“The Social Interaction Anxiety Scale 17-item straightforward items version (SIAS17; Rodebaugh et al., 2011) assessed anxiety related to social interactions, with items rated on a scale ranging from 0 to 4 and higher sum total scores indicating There were 54 participants who did not report…”
Influential
Ease of imaging positive affect content moderates the relation between ease of imaging negative affect content and indices of social anxiety
Fergus, T. A., Tyra, A. T., Ginty, A. T., & Williams, S. E. (2026) · Cognitive Behaviour Therapy · doi:10.1080/16506073.2026.2705534
Dissociated in Anticipation, Common in Feedback: Neuroelectrophysiological Mechanisms of Social‐Motivational Processing in Bivalent Evaluation Fears
Zhang, R., & Ding, J. (2026) · Psychophysiology · doi:10.1111/psyp.70374
“Approximately 415 undergraduate and graduate students from universities in Beijing, all of Asian descent, were screened using the Fear of Positive Evaluation Scale (FPES) and the Brief Fear of Negative Evaluation Scale–Straightforward Items (BFNE-S).”
Influential
Disentangling substantive and method variance in mixed-worded scales: An empirical application of the random intercept item factor analysis (RIIFA)
Faraci, P., & Nasonte, G. (2026) · Behavior Research Methods · doi:10.3758/s13428-026-03163-1
“…et al., 2016 for an empirical demonstration on the Need for Cognition Scale), (b) its internal and exter-nal validity (García-Batista et al., 2021; Rodebaugh et al., 2011), (c) its internal consistency (Roszkowski & Soven, 2010; Vigil-Colet et al., 2020; Zeng et al., 2020), and (d) the overall…”

Authors: Rodebaugh, T. L., Heimberg, R. G., Brown, P. J., Fernandez, K. C., Blanco, C., Schneier, F. R., & Liebowitz, M. R.
Affiliations: Washington University in St. Louis (US)
Temple University (US)
New York State Psychiatric Institute (US)
Corresponding author: Rodebaugh, Thomas L.
ORCID: Rodebaugh, Thomas L.
Heimberg, Richard G.
Brown, Patrick J.
Blanco, Carlos
Schneier, Franklin R.
Liebowitz, Michael R.
Venue: Journal of Anxiety Disorders
Publisher: Elsevier BV
Published: 2011-06
Volume: 25
Issue: 5
Pages: 623-630
ISSN: 0887-6185 (ISSN-L)
DOI: 10.1016/j.janxdis.2011.02.002
PMC: PMC3090265
OpenAlex: W2002440697
Cited by: 200
References: 33
Citations by year: 2026: 5 · 2025: 5 · 2024: 11 · 2023: 14 · 2022: 4 · 2021: 17 · 2020: 23 · 2019: 33 · 2018: 8 · 2017: 8 · 2016: 18 · 2015: 19 · 2014: 16 · 2013: 11 · 2012: 5
FWCI: 14.43
Type: journal article
Language: en
Open access: green
www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov
Licence: www.elsevier.com/tdm/userlicense/1.0/ (tdm)
www.elsevier.com/legal/tdmrep-license (tdm)
Locations: Journal of Anxiety Disorders (publishedVersion)
PubMed (publishedVersion)
Europe PMC (PubMed Central) (acceptedVersion)
PubMed Central (acceptedVersion)
Funders: National Institute on Aging (T32AG00030, T32AG000030)
National Institute of Mental Health (T32MH020004, T32 MH 20004, R01MH064726, K23MH099097, R01MH064481)
Topics: Social Sciences › Psychology › Experimental and Cognitive Psychology › Anxiety, Depression, Psychometrics, Treatment, Cognitive Processes
Social Sciences › Decision Sciences › Management Science and Operations Research › Psychometric Methodologies and Testing
Social Sciences › Psychology › Applied Psychology › Psychological Testing and Assessment
Keywords: social anxiety, Social Interaction Anxiety Scale, response bias, scale validity, age differences, educational attainment, reference values
MeSH terms: Adolescent, Adult, Age Factors, Aged, Aged, 80 and over, Anxiety, Female, Humans, Male, Middle Aged, Phobic Disorders, Psychiatric Status Rating Scales, Psychometrics, Surveys and Questionnaires, Reference Values, Reproducibility of Results

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