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Cited by 48Anxiety, Depression, Psychometrics, Treatment, Cognitive ProcessesAttachment and Relationship DynamicsChild and Adolescent Psychosocial and Emotional Development

The affective tie that binds: Examining the contribution of positive emotions and anxiety to relationship formation in social anxiety disorder

Open access
Taylor, Charles T., Pearlstein, Sarah L., Stein, Murray B.·2017·Journal of Anxiety Disorders
DOI 10.1016/j.janxdis.2017.03.007PMC PMC5630156
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Abstract

Individuals with social anxiety disorder (SAD) have difficulty forming social relationships. The prevailing clinical perspective is that negative emotions such as anxiety inhibit one’s capacity to develop satisfying social connections. However, empirical findings from social psychology and affective neuroscience suggest that positive emotional experiences are fundamental to establishing new social bonds. To reconcile these perspectives, we collected repeated measurements of anxiety, positive emotions (pleasantness), and connectedness over the course of a controlled relationship formation encounter in 56 participants diagnosed with SAD (64% female; Mage = 23.3, SD = 4.7). Participants experienced both increases in positive emotions and decreases in anxiety throughout the interaction. Change in positive emotions was the most robust predictor of subsequent increases in connectedness, as well as a greater desire to engage one’s partner in future social activities, above and beyond reductions in anxiety (medium to large sized effects). Those findings suggest that anxiety-based models alone may not fully explain difficulties in relationship formation in SAD, and underscore the potential value of considering positive emotional experiences in conceptual and treatment models of SAD.

AI snapshot

Written from the paper’s full text.

TL;DR

In 56 adults with social anxiety disorder completing a controlled relationship-building task, positive emotions increased and anxiety decreased; increases in positive emotion were the most robust predictor of greater connectedness and future approach motivation, above and beyond anxiety reductions. The findings suggest anxiety-based models alone may not fully explain relationship formation difficulties in SAD.

Key findings

  • Over the interaction, connectedness increased (B = 3.71, p < .001), pleasantness increased (B = 2.81, p < .001), and anxiety decreased (B = −3.33, p < .001).
  • Increases in pleasantness predicted subsequent increases in connectedness (B = 0.20, p < .001; indirect effect ab = .5620, 95% CI [.2588, .9245]), whereas decreases in anxiety only marginally predicted connectedness (B = −.084, p = .063) and did not show a significant indirect effect (ab = .2797, 95% CI [−.0105, .6034]).
  • In concurrent models, pleasantness remained a significant predictor of connectedness (B = .18, p = .001; indirect ab = .4338, 95% CI [.1699, .7537]), while anxiety did not (B = −.045, p = .34); an anxiety × pleasantness interaction was significant (B = −.0037, p = .015), with the pleasantness–connectedness association attenuated at higher anxiety.
  • For future approach motivation, change in pleasantness (r = .39, p = .003) and end-of-conversation pleasantness (r = .50, p < .001) predicted greater desire for future interaction; anxiety slope was marginal (r = −.26, p = .054) and post-interaction anxiety was not significant (r = −.21, p = .12).

Methods

  • Sample: 56 treatment-seeking individuals meeting criteria for principal SAD (64% female; Mage = 23.3, SD = 4.7), diagnosed via SCID-I and MINI, with comorbid conditions including current major depressive disorder (26.8%) and generalized anxiety disorder (30.4%).
  • Procedure: participants completed a controlled laboratory relationship-building task with a trained confederate, answering six increasingly self-disclosive questions; they rated anxiety, pleasantness, and connectedness on 0–100 scales after each question and completed the Desire for Future Interaction Scale (DFI) afterward.
  • Analysis: multilevel mediation models with time-lagged mediator and outcome, using PRODCLIN asymmetric confidence intervals; separate regressions used slope and intercept estimates of pleasantness and anxiety to predict DFI.

Limitations

  • Stated: positive emotions and anxiety were not experimentally manipulated; there was no non-clinical comparison group; measures were self-report and some were single-item; the laboratory task used trained confederates in their early 20s, limiting generalizability; SIAS-SF internal consistency was unexpectedly low; future interaction was self-reported motivation rather than observed behavior; dyad-level processes were not examined.
  • Stated: the study examined initial relationship formation in a circumscribed laboratory context and may not generalize to performance-based or other commonly feared social situations, naturalistic settings, or romantic relationship contexts.
  • Evident from the text: the sample was modest (N = 56), treatment-seeking, and predominantly female, and the mediation analyses are statistical rather than causal, so causal claims about positive emotion or anxiety effects cannot be established from these data.

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Registry

Crossref · 10.1016/j.janxdis.2017.03.007

Cites

102 of 102 references verified0 citation errors · 0 not checkable

Statistics

Claims the paper makes

0 of 93 cited sources checked · 0 supported · 0 flagged

  • Findingown data

    Participants with SAD experienced increases in positive emotions throughout the relationship formation interaction.

    “Participants experienced both increases in positive emotions and decreases in anxiety throughout the interaction.”
    Quote in the paperSubstantial claim
  • Findingown data

    Change in positive emotions was the most robust predictor of subsequent increases in connectedness, above and beyond reductions in anxiety, with medium to large sized effects.

    “Change in positive emotions was the most robust predictor of subsequent increases in connectedness, as well as a greater desire to engage one’s partner in future social activities, above and beyond reductions in anxiety (medium to large sized effects).”
    Quote in the paperSubstantial claim
  • Findingown data

    Participants with SAD experienced decreases in anxiety throughout the relationship formation interaction.

    “Participants experienced both increases in positive emotions and decreases in anxiety throughout the interaction.”
    Quote in the paperNot a substantial claim
  • Findingown data

    Change in positive emotions was the most robust predictor of greater desire to engage one's partner in future social activities, above and beyond reductions in anxiety, with medium to large sized effects.

    “Change in positive emotions was the most robust predictor of subsequent increases in connectedness, as well as a greater desire to engage one’s partner in future social activities, above and beyond reductions in anxiety (medium to large sized effects).”
    Quote in the paperSubstantial claim
  • Findingown data

    Slope estimates for anxiety did not significantly predict participant DFI when controlling for change in pleasantness.

    “Slope estimates for anxiety, however, did not significantly predict participant DFI, B = −.22 (SE = .41), t(54) = −.54, p = .60.”
    Quote in the paperSubstantial claim
  • May combine two claims. 25
  • Classified as probably not a substantial claim. 42

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    Findingown data

    Both change in pleasantness and end-of-conversation pleasantness significantly positively predicted participant future approach motivation (DFI) in SAD participants.

    “Both change in pleasantness and end of conversation pleasantness significantly predicted participant future approach motivation, r(56) = .39 and .50, p = .003 and < .001, respectively.”
    Quote in the paperSubstantial claim

  • May combine two claims.

    Findingown data

    Participants experienced reductions in anxiety and increases in positive emotion as the conversation progressed.

    “Participants experienced reductions in anxiety and increases in positive emotion as the conversation progressed.”
    Quote in the paperSubstantial claim

  • May combine two claims.

    Premisecitation

    Individuals with social anxiety disorder (SAD) have difficulty establishing and maintaining fulfilling social relationships.

    “Individuals with social anxiety disorder (SAD) have difficulty forming social relationships.”
    • Also stated in: § Abstract · hedged
      “Individuals with SAD tend to have difficulty establishing and maintaining fulfilling relationships with others”
    Quote in the paperSubstantial claim0 of 3 sources checked
    • cites Ledley, Erwin, & Heimberg, 2008

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    • cites Rodebaugh, 2009

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    • cites Schneier et al., 1994

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    Premisecitation

    Anxiety is a core, defining feature of SAD.

    “Given that anxiety represents a core, defining feature of SAD (American Psychiatric Association, 2013)”
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    • cites American Psychiatric Association, 2013

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    Premisecitation

    Empirically supported treatment approaches for SAD target anxiety-related affective processes in the service of reducing social avoidance.

    “empirically supported treatment approaches for SAD (e.g., exposure-based and cognitive behavioral therapies) target anxiety-related affective processes in the service of reducing social avoidance”
    Quote in the paperSubstantial claim0 of 3 sources checked
    • cites Clark et al., 2006 source

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    • cites Gordon, Wong, & Heimberg, 2014

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    • cites Hofmann & Otto, 2008

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    Study design and conductcitation

    The Beck Depression Inventory-II (BDI-II) has high internal consistency among college samples and psychiatric outpatients (Cronbach's alpha = .93 and .92, respectively) and sound psychometric properties.

    “The BDI–II has high internal consistency among college samples and psychiatric outpatients (Cronbach’s α = .93 and .92, respectively”
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    • cites Beck et al., 1996

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    • cites Dozois, Dobson, & Ahnberg, 1998

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    Premisecitation

    Neural circuits that regulate responses to reward-relevant stimuli are also involved in processing social rewards and may operate to reinforce connections with others.

    “neural circuits that regulate responses to reward-relevant stimuli (e.g., striatum, orbitofrontal cortex) are also involved in processing social rewards (e.g., receiving positive social feedback; Izuma, Saito, & Sadato, 2008), and thus may operate to reinforce our connections with others”
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    • cites Izuma, Saito, & Sadato, 2008 source

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    • cites Fareri, Niznikiewicz, Lee, & Delgado, 2012 source

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    • cites Bhanji & Delgado, 2014

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    Interpretationreasoning

    The anxiety, self-protective social goals, and negative predictions activated by positive social encounters in SAD would be expected to short-circuit the process of friendship development.

    “outcomes that would be expected to short-circuit the process of friendship development”
    Quote in the paperSubstantial claim

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    Study design and conductnone given

    Diagnostic consensus in the current study was reached by reviewing completed interviews during team meetings with the first author, with consultation from the third author.

    “Diagnostic consensus was reached by reviewing completed interviews during team meetings with the first author, with consultation provided by the third author”
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    Study design and conductcitation

    The MINI was used because of its relative brevity and good inter-rater reliability.

    “The MINI was used because of its relative brevity and good inter-rater reliability (Sheehan et al., 1998).”
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    • cites Sheehan et al., 1998

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    Study design and conductnone given

    Diagnostic assessments in the current study were conducted by trained interviewers, including a PhD-level clinician, a PhD student in clinical psychology, and two post-baccalaureate clinical research coordinators, all of whom received extensive training in the interview protocols.

    “Diagnostic assessments were conducted by a PhD-level clinician, a PhD student in clinical psychology, and two post-baccalaureate clinical research coordinators, all of whom received extensive training in the interview protocols.”
    Quote in the paperNot a substantial claim

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    Premisecitation

    In Kashdan and Roberts (2004), across all participants, trait positive affect was significantly positively associated with interpersonal attraction towards one's conversation partner, even after controlling for shared variance with trait negative affect, which itself was not significantly associated with partner liking.

    “Across all participants (high and low social anxiety groups), trait positive affect was significantly and positively associated with interpersonal attraction towards one’s conversation partner (i.e., partner liking), even after controlling for shared variance with trait negative affect, which itself was not significantly associated with partner liking.”
    Quote in the paperSubstantial claim0 of 1 sources checked
    • cites Kashdan & Roberts, 2004

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    Premisecitation

    The 17-item straightforward SIAS (SIAS-SF) has improved psychometric properties compared to the full SIAS.

    “following studies demonstrating improved psychometric properties of the 17-item straightforward SIAS (SIAS-SF; Rodebaugh et al., 2011; Rodebaugh, Woods, & Heimberg, 2007”
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    • cites Rodebaugh et al., 2011

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    • cites Rodebaugh, Woods, & Heimberg, 2007 source

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    Study design and conductcitation

    The Social Interaction Anxiety Scale (SIAS) is a well-established and psychometrically sound 20-item self-report inventory that assesses social interaction anxiety.

    “a well-established and psychometrically sound 20-item self-report inventory that assesses social interaction anxiety”
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    • cites Mattick & Clarke, 1998 source

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    • cites Brown et al., 1997

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    • cites Heimberg et al., 1992

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    Study design and conductcitation

    The MINI was administered to assess comorbid and exclusionary diagnoses in the current study.

    “The Mini International Neuropsychiatric Interview (MINI Version 7.0.0; Sheehan et al., 1998)2 was administered to assess comorbid diagnoses (e.g., other anxiety disorders, major depressive disorder) and exclusionary diagnoses (e.g., psychosis).”
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    • cites Sheehan et al., 1998

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    Interpretationreasoning

    Cognitive and behavioral models emphasizing anxiety-related processes and relational theories emphasizing positive emotional experiences are not mutually exclusive, leaving open the possibility that both affective processes may be important in understanding relationship formation in SAD.

    “cognitive and behavioral models emphasizing anxiety-related processes and relational theories emphasizing positive emotional experiences are not mutually exclusive, leaving open the possibility that both affective processes may be important in understanding relationship formation in SAD.”
    Quote in the paperNot a substantial claim

  • Classified as probably not a substantial claim. May combine two claims.

    Interpretationreasoning

    Low positive emotions that accompany SAD may interfere with developing a sense of connection with others and may decrease the individual's incentive to seek out opportunities to connect following a positive exchange.

    “the relational literature suggests that low positive emotions that accompany SAD may interfere with developing a sense of connection with others, and may decrease the individual’s incentive to seek out opportunities to connect with others following a positive exchange.”
    Quote in the paperSubstantial claim

  • Probably not a substantial claim: may not pass S3 (load-bearing).

    Study design and conductown data

    In the current sample, the BDI-II had a Cronbach's alpha of .90.

    “current sample Cronbach’s α = .90”
    Quote in the paperNot a substantial claim

  • Probably not a substantial claim: may not pass S3 (load-bearing).

    Study design and conductown data

    In the current sample, the Liebowitz Social Anxiety Scale (LSAS) had a Cronbach's alpha of .88.

    “current sample Cronbach’s α = .88”
    Quote in the paperNot a substantial claim

  • Classified as probably not a substantial claim. May combine two claims.

    Interpretationreasoning

    Anxiety and avoidance conceivably limit opportunities for establishing relationships and inhibit one's capacity to connect with others during social encounters in SAD due to elevated perceptions of threat.

    “Anxiety and avoidance conceivably limit opportunities for establishing relationships with others as well as inhibit one’s capacity to connect with others during social encounters due to elevated perceptions of threat.”
    Quote in the paperSubstantial claim

  • May combine two claims.

    Premisecitation

    In Kashdan and Roberts (2004), across the entire sample, participants who experienced greater state positive affect reported greater attraction and closeness to their partner, whereas state negative affect was significantly negatively correlated with closeness but not with interpersonal attraction.

    “across the entire sample, participants who experienced greater state positive affect (averaged across the mid- and end-point of the interaction) reported greater attraction and closeness to their partner (medium to large effects), whereas state negative affect was significantly negatively correlated with closeness (small-to-medium effect), but not with interpersonal attraction.”
    Quote in the paperSubstantial claim0 of 1 sources checked
    • cites Kashdan & Roberts, 2004

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    Premisecitation

    Single-item scales provide an efficient means to index an individual's current mood state and are commonly used to measure changes in mood in response to laboratory tasks.

    “Single-item scales provide an efficient means to index an individual's current mood state and are commonly used to measure changes in mood in response to laboratory tasks”
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    • cites Arch & Craske, 2006 source

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    • cites Tsao & Craske, 2000

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    • cites Wolpe, 1958

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    Study design and conductown data

    In the current sample, the 17-item SIAS-SF had a Cronbach's alpha of .68.

    “current sample Cronbach’s α = .68”
    Quote in the paperNot a substantial claim

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    Premisecitation

    Positive emotions promote openness to new experiences and increased exploratory behavior.

    “Positive emotions promote openness to new experiences and increased exploratory behavior”
    Quote in the paperSubstantial claim0 of 1 sources checked
    • cites Fredrickson, 2013 source

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    Premisecitation

    Positive emotions experienced early in relationships between new roommates correlate with connectedness, whereas negative emotions do not account for connectedness when considered with positive emotions.

    “positive emotions experienced towards the beginning of relationships between new roommates correlated with a sense of connectedness between those roommates, whereas negative emotions did not account for connectedness when considered in conjunction with positive emotions”
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    • cites Waugh & Fredrickson, 2006

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    • cites Strong & Aron, 2006

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    Study design and conductreasoning

    All models described were time-lagged, with the slope of the hypothesized intervening variables (pleasantness and anxiety) at time t and the slope of the outcome (connectedness) at time t+1.

    “Note that all models described above were time-lagged. That is, we examined the slope of the hypothesized intervening variables (pleasantness and anxiety) at time t, whereas the slope of the outcome (connectedness) was examined at time t+1.”
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    • cites Kazdin, 2007 source

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    • cites Aderka et al., 2011 source

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    • cites Donegan & Dugas, 2012

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    Study design and conductreasoning

    Confederates were blind to participants' diagnostic status.

    “confederates were blind to participants’ diagnostic status”
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    Premisecitation

    The questions were designed to gradually increase in emotional content and the level of self-disclosure they elicited.

    “The questions were designed to gradually increase in emotional content and the level of self-disclosure they elicited”
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    • cites Taylor & Amir, 2012 source

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    • cites Kashdan & Roberts, 2004

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    • cites 2006 Study 1

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    Premisecitation

    The individual items of the DFI reliably load on a single factor.

    “The individual items of the DFI have been shown to reliably load on a single factor”
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    • cites Segrin, 1993

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    Study design and conductnone given

    Experimenters and confederates were blind to the study hypotheses.

    “Experimenters and confederates were blind to the study hypotheses.”
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    Study design and conductcitation

    The conversation task is an abbreviated version of a previously validated relationship-building task.

    “The conversation task, an abbreviated version of a previously validated relationship-building task (Aron et al., 1997)”
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    • cites Aron et al., 1997 source

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    Study design and conductreasoning

    This multilevel data structure is appropriate for hierarchical linear modeling approaches.

    “This data structure is appropriate for hierarchical linear modeling approaches.”
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    Study design and conductown data

    The within-task relationship formation data formed a multilevel structure such that repeated measures collected over time were nested within participants.

    “The within-task relationship formation data formed a multilevel structure such that repeated measures collected over time (i.e., after each of six intimacy-building questions throughout the task) were nested within participants.”
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    Study design and conductnone given

    Participants and confederates were not explicitly matched on any demographic characteristics.

    “Participants and confederates were not explicitly matched on any demographic characteristics”
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    Study design and conductown data

    In the current sample, the DFI had a Cronbach's alpha of .91.

    “current sample Cronbach’s α = .91”
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    Study design and conductown data

    Two participants did not consent to videorecording of their social interactions, so n=54 for confederate behavior ratings.

    “Two participants did not consent to videorecording of their social interactions, thus n=54 for confederate behavior ratings.”
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    Study design and conductcitation

    To conduct a more rigorous test of mediation in which the mediator temporally precedes the outcome, the mediator and outcome variable were time lagged.

    “To conduct a more rigorous test of mediation in which the mediator temporally precedes the outcome (Kazdin, 2007), we time lagged the mediator and outcome variable (Aderka et al., 2011; Donegan & Dugas, 2012; Bomyea et al., 2015).”
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    • cites Kazdin, 2007 source

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    • cites Aderka et al., 2011 source

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    • cites Donegan & Dugas, 2012

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    Study design and conductcitation

    The current sample size was sufficient to detect, at minimum, r > .36 with .80 power and α = .05 (two-tailed).

    “The current sample size was sufficient to detect, at minimum, r > .36 with .80 power and α = .05 (two-tailed; estimated using the R statistical package pwr [Champely, 2016]).”
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    • cites Champely, 2016

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    Study design and conductown data

    In the current sample, the observer ratings of confederate warmth and friendliness had a Cronbach's alpha of .77.

    “current sample Cronbach’s α = .77”
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    Study design and conductcitation

    Prior studies support the reliability and validity of the DFI.

    “Prior studies support the reliability and validity of the DFI”
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    • cites Powers & Zuroff, 1988

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    • cites Voncken & Dijk, 2013

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    Study design and conductcitation

    The Desire for Future Interaction Scale (DFI) is a well-established measure used in interpersonal studies of psychopathology.

    “The DFI is a well-established measure used in interpersonal studies of psychopathology”
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    • cites Segrin, 2001

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    Interpretationnone given

    The affective and interpersonal processes under investigation may operate differently within contexts that afford the opportunity for developing a romantic partnership.

    “the affective and interpersonal processes under investigation may operate differently within contexts that afford the opportunity for developing a romantic partnership.”
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    Interpretationreasoning

    Possible mechanisms underlying changes in affect may have been increases in situational familiarity (less uncertainty) as well as perceptions of positive outcomes and/or the absence of negative outcomes throughout the social interaction.

    “Possible mechanisms underlying changes in affect may have been increases in situational familiarity (i.e., less uncertainty) as well as perceptions of positive outcomes and/or the absence of negative outcomes throughout the social interaction.”
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    Premisecitation

    Contemporary cognitive and behavioral theories of SAD emphasize the role of anxiety and fear-related processes in maintaining SAD.

    “Contemporary cognitive and behavioral theories of SAD (Clark, 2001; Clark & Wells, 1995; Heimberg et al., 2014; Hofmann, 2007) emphasize the role of anxiety and fear-related processes in maintaining SAD.”
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    • cites Clark, 2001

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    • cites Clark & Wells, 1995

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    • cites Heimberg et al., 2014

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    Study design and conductown data

    The current findings were based wholly on self-reported outcomes, some of which comprised single item ratings.

    “The current findings were based wholly on self-reported outcomes, some of which comprised single item ratings.”
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    Interpretationcitation

    The experimental relationship formation task was a novel interpersonal context for participants, likely to elicit fears of the unknown and fears of evaluation.

    “The experimental relationship formation task was a novel interpersonal context for participants, likely to elicit concerns about what would be required of them (i.e., fears of the unknown; Carleton, 2016) and how their partner would evaluate and respond to them (i.e., fears of evaluation; Heimberg et al., 2014; Weeks & Howell, 2014).”
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    • cites Carleton, 2016 source

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    • cites Heimberg et al., 2014

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    • cites Weeks & Howell, 2014

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    Study design and conductown data

    Desire for future interaction with conversation partners was measured via self-reported motivation rather than actual behavioral engagement.

    “in assessing desire for future interaction with conversation partners, self-reported motivation was measured rather than actual behavioral engagement.”
    Quote in the paperNot a substantial claim

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    Study design and conductown data

    The LSAS displayed acceptable internal consistency and scores in the current sample were comparable to treatment-seeking samples from prior research.

    “the LSAS displayed acceptable internal consistency and scores in the current sample were comparable to treatment-seeking samples from prior research.”
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    Premisecitation

    Approach motivation has previously been linked to numerous positive social outcomes.

    “approach motivation has previously been linked to numerous positive social outcomes (e.g., Elliot et al., 2006; Gable, 2006)”
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    • cites Elliot et al., 2006

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    • cites Gable, 2006

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    Study design and conductnone given

    The study had a controlled laboratory-based relationship formation task, repeated ratings of affect and connectedness throughout the conversation, including ratings of both positive emotion and anxiety, and a clinical sample of individuals meeting diagnostic criteria for SAD.

    “this work had several strengths, including a controlled laboratory-based relationship formation task, repeated ratings of affect and connectedness throughout the conversation, including ratings of both positive emotion and anxiety, and a clinical sample of individuals meeting diagnostic criteria for SAD.”
    Quote in the paperSubstantial claim

  • Probably not a substantial claim: may not pass S3 (load-bearing). May combine two claims.

    Study design and conductreasoning

    The single-item self-report measures do not capture the full range of anxiety and positive emotional experiences, may not be as robust as multi-item measures, and rely on participant introspection.

    “these measures do not capture the full range of anxiety and positive emotional experiences, they may not be as robust as multi-item measures, and they rely on participant introspection.”
    Quote in the paperNot a substantial claim

  • Classified as probably not a substantial claim. May combine two claims.

    Study design and conductnone given

    Positive emotions and anxiety were not experimentally manipulated in the current study.

    “First, positive emotions and anxiety were not experimentally manipulated.”
    Quote in the paperSubstantial claim

  • May combine two claims.

    Premisecitation

    Cognitive behavioral therapy for SAD reduces symptoms of anxiety but produces less robust effects on measures of social relationship satisfaction.

    “although contemporary empirically supported treatments (e.g., cognitive behavioral therapy) for SAD reduce symptoms of anxiety, they produce less robust effects on measures of social relationship satisfaction (Eng, Coles, Heimberg, & Safren, 2005).”
    Quote in the paperSubstantial claim0 of 1 sources checked
    • cites Eng, Coles, Heimberg, & Safren, 2005 source

      Not checked in the free run.

53 of 53

  • The paper relies on this without support.

    Positive emotions do not play a central role in current conceptual and treatment models for SAD.

    “Given that positive emotions do not play a central role in current conceptual and treatment models for SAD”

  • The paper relies on this without support.

    The hypothesis that reductions in anxiety facilitate relationship formation in individuals with SAD has not yet been empirically tested.

    “To our knowledge, this hypothesis has yet to be empirically tested.”

  • The paper relies on this without support.

    SAD has historically been classified, conceptualized, and treated from an anxiety-focused perspective.

    “Although SAD has historically been classified, conceptualized, and treated from an anxiety-focused perspective”

  • The paper relies on this without support.

    The relationship formation task with a confederate conversation partner is a valid model of real-world relationship formation for individuals with social anxiety disorder.

    “over the course of the relationship formation task”

  • The paper relies on this without support.

    Individuals with SAD have difficulty forming relationships with others.

    “Individuals with social anxiety disorder (SAD) have difficulty forming relationships with others.”

  • The paper relies on this without support.

    Anxiety reduction is a central target in many prevailing treatment approaches for SAD.

    “Anxiety reduction is a central target in many prevailing treatment approaches for SAD.”

  • The paper relies on this without support.

    The prevailing view is that anxiety is the fundamental affective experience that accounts for relationship impairments in SAD.

    “challenge the prevailing view that anxiety is the fundamental affective experience that accounts for relationship impairments in SAD”

  • The paper relies on this without support.

    The topic of positive emotions in relationship formation in SAD is under-addressed in contemporary theories and treatments.

    “a topic that is under-addressed in contemporary theories and treatments.”
8 of 8

Claims other papers make about this one

Each is checked against this paper’s own text: does it say what the citing paper says it does?

Statistics recomputed

Every reported test result, recomputed from its test statistic and degrees of freedom. A result shows as not adding up only once an independent check has confirmed it.

  • Not confirmedr(56) = -0.26reported p = .054 · recomputed p = .049

    “r(56) = −.26, p = .054”

  • Not confirmedt(54) = -0.54reported p = .6 · recomputed p = .591

    “t(54) = −.54, p = .60”

  • Consistentt(68.59) = 4.38reported p < .001 · recomputed p < .001

    “t(68.59) = 4.38, p < .001”

  • Consistentt(67.44) = -4.86reported p < .001 · recomputed p < .001

    “t(67.44) = −4.86, p < .001”

  • Consistentt(271.28) = 3.44reported p = .001 · recomputed p < .001

    “t(271.28) = 3.44, p = .001”

  • Consistentt(262.8) = -0.95reported p = .34 · recomputed p = .343

    “t(262.80) = −.95, p = .34”

  • Consistentt(72.461) = 7.05reported p < .001 · recomputed p < .001

    “t(72.461) = 7.05, p < .001”

  • Consistentt(251.97) = -2.45reported p = .015 · recomputed p = .015

    “t(251.97) = −2.45, p = .015”

  • Consistentt(273.46) = 4.24reported p < .001 · recomputed p < .001

    “t(273.46) = 4.24, p < .001”

  • Consistentt(265.43) = -1.01reported p = .31 · recomputed p = .313

    “t(265.43) = −1.01, p = .31”

  • Consistentr(56) = -0.21reported p = .12 · recomputed p = .114

    “r(56) = −.21, p = .12”

  • Consistentt(54) = 0.1reported p = .92 · recomputed p = .921

    “t(54) = .10, p = .92”

  • Consistentt(54) = -0.63reported p = .53 · recomputed p = .531

    “t(54) = −.63, p = .53”

  • Consistentt(54) = 2.42reported p = .019 · recomputed p = .019

    “t(54) = 2.42, p = .019”

  • Consistentt(54) = 3.82reported p < .001 · recomputed p < .001

    “t(54) = 3.82, p < .001”

  • Consistentt(54) = -0.55reported p = .59 · recomputed p = .585

    “t(54) = −.55, p = .59”

16 of 16

Self-check

Percentages, sums and reported differences re-computed from the paper’s own numbers.

  • Intercept-interaction t statistic conflicts sharply with standard error

    Minor

    Dividing the reported coefficient by its standard error gives −38, not the reported t of −.63. At least one of these values is incorrect.

    Reported -0.63 · recomputed -38

1 of 1

Cites

Flagged first, then by citations

3 of the 105 references couldn’t be matched to a known paper.

Research works printed but not linked: 1

  1. First, M. B., Spitzer, R. L., Gibbon, M., & Williams, J. B. W. (November 2002). Structured Clinical Interview for DSM-IV-TR Axis I Disorders, Research Version, Patient Edition. (SCID-I/P) New York: Biometrics Research New York State Psychiatric Institute.

Cited by

Sorted by citations

Related

Authors
Taylor, C. T., Pearlstein, S. L., & Stein, M. B.
Affiliations
  • University of California San Diego (US)
  • San Diego State University (US)
Corresponding author
Taylor, Charles T.
ORCID
Venue
Journal of Anxiety Disorders
Publisher
Elsevier BV
Published
2017-06
Volume
49
Pages
21-30
ISSN
0887-6185 (ISSN-L)
DOI
10.1016/j.janxdis.2017.03.007
PMC
PMC5630156
OpenAlex
W2602531414
Semantic Scholar
128850190f55252caaf34fc7cf52771281de76f3
Cited by
47
References
105
Citations by year
2026: 4 · 2025: 8 · 2024: 4 · 2023: 3 · 2022: 9 · 2021: 10 · 2020: 7 · 2019: 2
FWCI
3.18
Type
journal article
Language
en
Open access
Licence
Locations
  • Journal of Anxiety Disorders (publishedVersion)
  • PubMed (publishedVersion)
  • Europe PMC (PubMed Central) (acceptedVersion)
  • PubMed Central (acceptedVersion)
  • eScholarship (California Digital Library) (submittedVersion)
Funders
National Institute of Mental Health (R00MH090243)
Topics
  • Social Sciences › Psychology › Experimental and Cognitive Psychology › Anxiety, Depression, Psychometrics, Treatment, Cognitive Processes
  • Social Sciences › Psychology › Social Psychology › Attachment and Relationship Dynamics
  • Social Sciences › Psychology › Clinical Psychology › Child and Adolescent Psychosocial and Emotional Development
Keywords
social anxiety disorder, relationship formation, positive emotions, anxiety, connectedness, social bonding, affective neuroscience, interpersonal relationships, emotion regulation
MeSH terms
Phobia, Social, Affective Symptoms, Anxiety, Emotions, Female, Humans, Interpersonal Relations, Male, Predictive Value of Tests, Psychometrics, Social Behavior, Young Adult

About these checks

Registry, retraction, Cites and statistics results are computed, not judged, with one exception: a printed reference that no index lists is read once by a model before it counts as a citation error. Claims are extracted by a model and kept only when their quote appears verbatim in the text; each cited source is then checked, with a model’s help, for whether it says what the claim relies on. Those verdicts can be wrong — read the claim’s quote and the cited source before relying on one.

Claims read by deepseek-v4.1-flash under definition version 3 (extract-v3) on 2026-10-09.

Classified by jev-1.13-20260917 (gold-guideline-v0.2) on 2026-10-09.

Statistics and arithmetic are recomputed, not judged.

Confidence bands are shown only for fields calibrated on our annotated test set. None is calibrated yet, so no band is shown.

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