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Cited by 26Classical Antiquity StudiesAncient Mediterranean Archaeology and HistoryAncient and Medieval Archaeology Studies

The DOI matches its Crossref record; 27 of the 28 references it cites were found in a registry or an index; none of the 42 sources its claims cite is checked for support yet.

Land transport in mountainous regions in the Roman Empire: Network analysis in the case of the Alps and Pyrenees

Open access
Carreras, Cèsar, De Soto, Pau, Muñoz, Aina·2019·Journal of Archaeological Science: Reports
DOI 10.1016/j.jasrep.2019.04.011
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Overview

AI snapshot

Written from the paper’s full text.

TL;DR

The paper uses GIS least-cost paths and network analysis to model Roman land transport across the Alps and Pyrenees, showing that mountainous routes were costly and difficult but strategically maintained for military, administrative, and political reasons. It argues that after the third century, declining strategic importance left these routes without enough economic or social function to sustain them.

Key findings

  • Roman wagons were practically limited by gradients above 5%, while pack animals could climb around 43% on stable surfaces; Alpine road sections at Bard, Pierre Taille, and Montquert had gradients of 6.7–10%, making them nearly impossible for heavy wagons and requiring light carts or pack animals.
  • Transport cost ratios from Carreras and De Soto (2013) were: sea 1; river downriver 3.6; river upriver 6.8; cart 50.7; pack animal 43.4. Table 1 gives speeds/capacities: sea 4.25 km/h and 92 T; river downriver 2.5 km/h and 5.5 T; river upriver 0.6 km/h and 5.5 T; cart 1.6 km/h and 386 kg; pack animal 4.5 km/h and 90 kg.
  • GIS modelling indicated that for land routes from Italy to other provinces, only the coastal route via Albintimilium (Ventimiglia) would have been economically viable; in the NE Pyrenees, routes 2 and 3 offered little competition to coastal route 1.
  • Iulia Libica (Llívia) was founded midway along Pyrenean route 2, probably as a military/administrative control point and statio for portoria, and its ceramic and marble imports came mostly from the Gaulish side rather than Hispania.
  • For Hannibal’s crossing, LCP analysis concluded the most feasible route was via Coll d’Ares, or that the army split into two routes, in less than 11 days; wagons could not have been used because parts of routes 2 and 3 document gradients of more than 6–10%.

Methods

  • The study combines GIS least-cost path (LCP) analysis and network analysis, using DEMs including SRTM 30 m data and, for the Segre route, a 5 m DEM from the ICGC; LCP accuracy is linked to DEM accuracy.
  • It applies cost functions and slope limits for different transport means: Tobler’s hiking function for walkers, 5% gradient limits for wagons, 43% for pack animals/cavalry, 13% for elephants, and Dijkstra-based shortest-path calculations for transport networks.
  • Case studies focus on the Italian Alps (Great and Little St Bernard passes, Augusta Praetoria/Aosta) and the NE Pyrenees (Iulia Libica/Llívia, Hannibal’s route, Coll d’Ares and Coll de la Perxa), with modelled costs and times compared to archaeological material such as pottery, coins, and marble.

Limitations

  • The paper states that LCP accuracy depends on DEM accuracy; 30 m SRTM data were used, while about 5 m accuracy would be advisable for mountain passes, and high-accuracy models are often not freely accessible.
  • It notes that cross-border data availability can prevent a complete model, as in the Pyrenees where only the Catalan side had free 5 m data and the French side was needed to complete the LCP to Elna.
  • The paper states that exceptional gradients of 16–20% are mentioned but lack archaeological evidence; more broadly, the text makes evident that the transport models are synthetic/simulated and rely on historical, archaeological, and ethnographic cost values, so results need comparison with the archaeological record.

Model-written summary. Check it against the paper before relying on it.

Integrity signals

Registry

Crossref · 10.1016/j.jasrep.2019.04.011

Cites

27 of 27 references verified0 citation errors · 0 not checkable

Statistics

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Verification

Claims the paper makes

0 of 42 cited sources checked · 0 supported · 0 flagged

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  • Findingcitation

    There is a great general coincidence in the ratios between sea, river and land transport across transport projects.

    “Despite the fact that there are some differences between transport projects, there is a great general coincidence in the ratios between sea, river and land transport.”
    Quote in the paperNot a substantial claim
  • Findingown data

    In Britain, as in most Roman networks, there are big differences between the results from calculating the shortest path (distance), the cheapest (cost) and quickest (time) routes.

    “In the case of Britain, as in most of the Roman networks, there are big differences between the results from calculating the shortest path (distance), the cheapest (cost) and quickest (time) routes (See Fig. 5).”
    Quote in the paperNot a substantial claim
  • Findingown data

    Infantrymen did not have problems along these routes.

    “Infantrymen did not have any problems to go along these routes, but neither elephants nor cavalrymen could have faced some critical points in the Segre route at the Tresponts (Organyà) and a narrow gorge 5 km long from Seu d'Urgell (see Fig. 3, Fig. 12).”
    Quote in the paperSubstantial claim
    • Rests on an assumption: From the early Roman Republican period, there were three main routes crossing the NE Pyrenees.
  • Findingown data

    Hannibal's troops could not have used wagons on routes 2 and 3 because some parts have gradients of more than 6-10%.

    “The consequent slope map from the SRTM's DEM showed that Hannibal's troops could not have used wagons, as some parts of route 2 by Coll d'Ares (Prats de Molló) and route 3 by Coll de la Perxa (Alta Cerdanya) documents gradients of more than 6-10%.”
    Quote in the paperSubstantial claim
    • Rests on an assumption: From the early Roman Republican period, there were three main routes crossing the NE Pyrenees.
  • Findingown data

    Iulia Libica depended on local Gaulish resources rather than Hispanic ones.

    “Simulating transport costs and time from Iulia Libica, it is evident that the municipium depended on local of Gaulish resources rather than Hispanic ones, since as communications with the rest of the province were complicated.”
    Quote in the paperNot a substantial claim
    • Rests on an assumption: From the early Roman Republican period, there were three main routes crossing the NE Pyrenees.
  • It may state two separate claims as one. 37
  • Probably not a substantial claim. 34

  • It may state two separate claims as one.

    Findingown data

    Neither elephants nor cavalrymen could have faced some critical points in the Segre route at the Tresponts (Organyà) and a narrow gorge 5 km long from Seu d'Urgell.

    “Infantrymen did not have any problems to go along these routes, but neither elephants nor cavalrymen could have faced some critical points in the Segre route at the Tresponts (Organyà) and a narrow gorge 5 km long from Seu d'Urgell (see Fig. 3, Fig. 12).”
    Quote in the paperSubstantial claim
    • Rests on an assumption: From the early Roman Republican period, there were three main routes crossing the NE Pyrenees.

  • Probably not a substantial claim. The paper’s conclusions may not depend on it. It may state two separate claims as one.

    Findingnone given

    The municipium of Iulia Libica was founded in the time of Augustus and lies in the middle of route 2.

    “The munipium of Iulia Libica founded in the time of Augustus, lies in the middle of the route 2.”
    Quote in the paperNot a substantial claim
    • Rests on an assumption: From the early Roman Republican period, there were three main routes crossing the NE Pyrenees.

  • It may state two separate claims as one.

    Findingown data

    Routes 2 and 3 could have offered little competition to coastal route 1, which had become the most frequently used during the Roman period.

    “Modelling travel time costs and expenses by applying network analyses with GIS software, using the methodologies explained in Section 2, shows that routes 2 and 3 could have offered little competition to the coastal route 1, that had become the most frequently used during the Roman period.”
    Quote in the paperSubstantial claim
    • Rests on an assumption: From the early Roman Republican period, there were three main routes crossing the NE Pyrenees.

  • It may state two separate claims as one.

    Findingreasoning

    The proposed LCP route 3 for infantrymen was not the same for cavalrymen, who avoided the Segre path.

    “Because of this slope limitation, the proposed LCP route 3 for infantrymen was not the same for cavalrymen (see Fig. 12) who avoided the Segre path.”
    Quote in the paperSubstantial claim
    • Rests on an assumption: From the early Roman Republican period, there were three main routes crossing the NE Pyrenees.

  • Probably not a substantial claim. The paper may give no reason why it holds. It may state two separate claims as one.

    Findingnone given

    Some urban centres in these regions (e.g., in the Pyrenees) reduced their size, documented less foreign material, and others were abandoned in the late period.

    “Some urban centres in these regions, for instance in the Pyrenees, reduced their size and documented less foreign material and others were abandoned in the late period.”
    Quote in the paperNot a substantial claim

  • Probably not a substantial claim. The paper may give no reason why it holds.

    Premisenone given

    In spite of the lack of an economic return, the Roman Empire invested a lot of resources in building complex infrastructures up in mountainous regions.

    “In spite of the lack of an economic return, the Roman Empire invested a lot of resources in building complex infrastructures up in mountainous regions.”
    Quote in the paperNot a substantial claim

  • It may state two separate claims as one.

    Interpretationreasoning

    Pack animals were the only means of transport in the highest part of the mountains, so it was essential to change the means of transport to overcome steep mountain roads.

    “Therefore, pack animals were the only means of transport in the highest part of the mountains, so it was essential to change the means of transport to overcome those steep mountains roads.”
    Quote in the paperNot a substantial claim
    • Rests on an assumption: Pack animals are capable of climbing up gradients around 43% on stable surfaces.

  • Probably not a substantial claim. The paper’s conclusions may not depend on it.

    Premisecitation

    The main challenge for the Western Roman Empire was to raise special finance to connect the whole of the Roman Empire with the Pyrenees and the Alps.

    “The main challenge for the Western Roman Empire was to raise special finance to connect the whole of the Roman Empire with the Pyrenees and the Alps (Leveau and Palet, 2010).”
    Quote in the paperNot a substantial claim0 of 1 sources checked
    • cites Leveau and Palet, 2010 source

  • Probably not a substantial claim. The paper’s conclusions may not depend on it.

    Premisecitation

    Rome was the first civilization to overcome mountainous obstacles by building steep slopes and small tunnels.

    “Rome was the first civilization to overcome these obstacles by building steep slopes and small tunnels (Leveau, 2008).”
    Quote in the paperNot a substantial claim0 of 1 sources checked
    • cites Leveau, 2008

      Couldn’t be matched to a paper in Crossref, so it can’t be checked.

  • Probably not a substantial claim. The paper’s conclusions may not depend on it.

    Premisecitation

    Moreno (2006) increased the percentage of gradient that wheeled transport could deal with to 6-8% in accordance to empirical values obtained from some roads in Hispania.

    “Moreno (2006, 48) increased this percentage to 6-8% in accordance to empirical values obtained from some roads in Hispania.”
    Quote in the paperNot a substantial claim0 of 1 sources checked
    • cites Moreno, 2006

      Couldn’t be matched to a paper in Crossref, so it can’t be checked.

  • Probably not a substantial claim. The paper’s conclusions may not depend on it.

    Premisenone given

    The accuracy of the analysis of the LCP is linked to the degree of accuracy of the DEM.

    “It should be kept in mind that the accuracy of the analysis of the LCP is linked to the degree of accuracy of the DEM.”
    Quote in the paperNot a substantial claim

  • It may state two separate claims as one.

    Premisecitation

    Gradients larger than 5% were impossible for Roman wagons, so this factor limited their use.

    “Gradients larger than 5% were impossible for Roman wagons, so this factor limited their use (Lawton, 2004).”
    Quote in the paperSubstantial claim0 of 1 sources checked
    • cites Lawton, 2004

      Couldn’t be matched to a paper in Crossref, so it can’t be checked.

  • Probably not a substantial claim. The paper’s conclusions may not depend on it. The paper may give no reason why it holds.

    Premisenone given

    Different means of transport may obtain different results from movement on such routes.

    “Lastly, once the potential network is defined, different means of transport (i.e.walkers, oxen drawn-vehicles, pack animals) may obtain different results from the movement on such routes.”
    Quote in the paperNot a substantial claim

  • Probably not a substantial claim. The paper may give no reason why it holds.

    Premisenone given

    The main base for these calculations is the knowledge of a well digitized transport network, which should include land routes and also navigable rivers and sea connections.

    “The main base for these calculations is the knowledge of a well digitilized transport network, which should include the land routes and also the navigable rivers and sea connections.”
    Quote in the paperNot a substantial claim

  • Probably not a substantial claim. The paper may give no reason why it holds.

    Premisenone given

    The pattern of population distribution in the region and closeness of different settlements are the key proxies to establish potential contact by means of a transport network.

    “Firstly, the pattern of population distribution in the region and closeness of different settlements are the key proxies to establish potential contact by means of a transport network.”
    Quote in the paperNot a substantial claim

  • Probably not a substantial claim. It may state two separate claims as one.

    Premisenone given

    GIS network analysis modules are especially adequate for sophisticated transport networks, combining different means of transport, and can obtain cost and time consumption.

    “Another different technical application of GIS developed for network analysis modules, is especially adequate for sophisticated transport networks, combining different means of transport, and it can also obtain cost and time consumption.”
    Quote in the paperSubstantial claim

  • Probably not a substantial claim. The paper’s conclusions may not depend on it.

    Premisecitation

    Verhagen and Jeneson (2012) applied a cost function for wheeled vehicles with a critical slope over 15% in their Least-Cost Network in GIS to calculate the Roman road in the mountainous region of Limburg (Nederland).

    “Verhagen and Jeneson (2012) applied a cost function for wheeled vehicles with a critical slope over 15% in their Least-Cost Network in GIS to calculate the Roman road in the mountainous region of Limburg (Nederland).”
    Quote in the paperNot a substantial claim0 of 1 sources checked
    • cites Verhagen and Jeneson, 2012

      Couldn’t be matched to a paper in Crossref, so it can’t be checked.

  • It may state two separate claims as one.

    Premisecitation

    Herzog (2013) established critical slopes between 8 and 10% in the Rhineland roads for vehicles drawn by oxen, based on the inductive evidence on the provincial roads gathered by Grewe (2004, 30), which do not exceed more than 8% gradient.

    “Likewise, Herzog (2013) established critical slopes between 8 and 10% in the Rhineland roads for vehicles drawn by oxen, based on the inductive evidence on the provincial roads gathered by Grewe (2004, 30), which do not exceed more than 8% gradient.”
    Quote in the paperNot a substantial claim0 of 2 sources checked
    • cites Herzog, 2013

      Couldn’t be matched to a paper in Crossref, so it can’t be checked.

    • cites Grewe, 2004

      Couldn’t be matched to a paper in Crossref, so it can’t be checked.

  • It may state two separate claims as one.

    Premisecitation

    With LCP applied to a DEM, it is possible to envisage which mountain passes were most-likely to have been used as they presented less difficulty, and also the time involved if a hiking formula is applied.

    “With LCP applied to a DEM, it is possible to envisage which mountain passes were most-likely to have been used as they presented less difficulty (Llobera et al., 2011) and also the time involved if a hiking formula is applied (Tobler, 1993).”
    Quote in the paperSubstantial claim0 of 2 sources checked
    • cites Llobera et al., 2011 source
    • cites Tobler, 1993

      Couldn’t be matched to a paper in Crossref, so it can’t be checked.

  • Probably not a substantial claim. The paper may give no reason why it holds.

    Premisenone given

    The localization of the network depends on landscape conditions such as type of soils, water, vegetal coverage and gradient.

    “Secondly, the localization of the network depends on the landscape conditions such as type of soils, water, vegetal coverage and gradient.”
    Quote in the paperNot a substantial claim

  • Probably not a substantial claim. The paper’s conclusions may not depend on it. It may state two separate claims as one.

    Premisecitation

    Roman wagons were 2 or 4 wheeled vehicles, with 8 or 10 spoke wheels rimmed with iron, pulled by oxen or horses.

    “Roman wagons were 2 or 4 wheeled vehicles, with 8 or 10 spoke wheels rimmed with iron, pulled by oxen or horses (Raepsaet, 1982, 236) (see Fig. 1).”
    Quote in the paperNot a substantial claim0 of 1 sources checked
    • cites Raepsaet, 1982

      Couldn’t be matched to a paper in Crossref, so it can’t be checked.

  • It may state two separate claims as one.

    Premisecitation

    Natural features such as rivers or mountains were overcome by building bridges and tunnels, requiring continuous maintenance and sometimes a control point to pay tolls.

    “A few natural features such as rivers or mountains were overcome by building bridges and tunnels (only small ones), that required a continuous maintenance and sometimes a control point to pay tolls.”
    Quote in the paperNot a substantial claim

  • Probably not a substantial claim.

    Premisereasoning

    The combination of the established transport network with ancient travel speeds and costs allows the creation of transportation models and distribution areas for goods.

    “The combination of the established transport network with Ancient travel speeds and costs, allows the creation of transportation models and distribution areas for the goods.”
    Quote in the paperSubstantial claim

  • It may state two separate claims as one.

    Premisecitation

    Pack animals carried between 90 and 120 kg at a speed of 5-6.5 km/h.

    “Pack animals carried between 90 and 120 Kg (Leighton, 1972;Landels, 1978;Carreras and De Soto, 2010, 89) at a speed of 5-6.5 Km/h.”
    Quote in the paperNot a substantial claim0 of 3 sources checked
    • cites Leighton, 1972

      Couldn’t be matched to a paper in Crossref, so it can’t be checked.

    • cites Landels, 1978

      Couldn’t be matched to a paper in Crossref, so it can’t be checked.

    • cites Carreras and De Soto, 2010

      Couldn’t be matched to a paper in Crossref, so it can’t be checked.

  • It may state two separate claims as one.

    Premisenone given

    Pack animals have no such limitations except at critical points; they face difficulties crossing rivers or climbing steep hills.

    “Regarding pack animals, there are no such limitations except for at critical points.Pack animals face difficulties crossing rivers or climbing steep hills (Fig. 4).”
    Quote in the paperSubstantial claim
    • Rests on an assumption: Pack animals are capable of climbing up gradients around 43% on stable surfaces.

  • It may state two separate claims as one.

    Interpretationreasoning

    Romans built roads avoiding larger gradients when possible, but it was sometimes difficult to cover the whole itinerary without steep gradients.

    “As a result, Romans built roads avoiding larger gradients when possible, but it was sometimes difficult to cover the whole itinerary without steep gradients.”
    Quote in the paperSubstantial claim

  • Probably not a substantial claim. The paper’s conclusions may not depend on it. It may state two separate claims as one.

    Premisereasoning

    Harsh winter conditions required specific transport infrastructures to avoid muddy roads and to increase the frequency of mansios to give shelter to travellers.

    “These harsh conditions required specific transport infrastructures to avoid muddy roads as well as to increase the frequency of mansios to give shelter to travellers.”
    Quote in the paperNot a substantial claim

  • Probably not a substantial claim. The paper’s conclusions may not depend on it.

    Premisecitation

    Wheeled transport could theoretically deal with gradients larger than 5%.

    “Lawton (2004) suggests that wheeled transport could theoretically deal with gradients larger than 5%.”
    Quote in the paperNot a substantial claim0 of 1 sources checked
    • cites Lawton, 2004

      Couldn’t be matched to a paper in Crossref, so it can’t be checked.

  • It may state two separate claims as one.

    Premisereasoning

    When dealing with borders in mountainous areas, the data of one of the countries may not be free, and therefore a complete model of the mountainous area cannot be accomplished.

    “In addition, when dealing with borders in mountainous areas, the problem could be that the data of one of the countries are is not free, and therefore a complete model of the mountainous area cannot be accomplished.”
    Quote in the paperSubstantial claim

  • Probably not a substantial claim. The paper’s conclusions may not depend on it. It may state two separate claims as one.

    Premisecitation

    Muñoz (2017) had to use the 30 m STRM model because only free 5 m accuracy data was available for the Catalan side of the Pyrenees and the French part was necessary to complete the LCP to Elna.

    “This is the case with the work of Muñoz (2017), in which the model of 30 m of the STRM had to be used, because only the free data with a 5 m accuracy was available for the Catalan side of the Pyrenees and the French part was also necessary so as to complete the LCP to Elna.”
    Quote in the paperNot a substantial claim0 of 1 sources checked
    • cites Muñoz, 2017

      Couldn’t be matched to a paper in Crossref, so it can’t be checked.

  • It may state two separate claims as one.

    Premisecitation

    The Pisidia's Edict established the equivalence of 1 wagon as 3 mules or 6 donkeys, revealing the importance of pack animals in highland environments.

    “The Pisidia's Edict issued in a mountainous region of Anatolia (Mitchell, 1976) established the equivalence of 1wagon as with 3 mules or 6 donkeys, which reveals the importance of these pack animals in highland environments.”
    Quote in the paperNot a substantial claim0 of 1 sources checked
    • cites Mitchell, 1976 source

  • Probably not a substantial claim. The paper may give no reason why it holds.

    Interpretationreasoning

    Most Alpine and Pyrenees mountain passes required a change in transport to overcome the final steep slopes.

    “Most Alpine and Pyrenees mountain passes required this change in transport to overcome the final steep slopes.”
    Quote in the paperNot a substantial claim
    • Rests on an assumption: Pack animals are capable of climbing up gradients around 43% on stable surfaces.

  • Probably not a substantial claim. The paper’s conclusions may not depend on it.

    Premisecitation

    The collar harness for shoulder traction had already been introduced in Roman times, not in the medieval period as most experts defend.

    “As far as harnessing, recent research and experiments have confirmed that the collar harness for shoulder traction had already been introduced in Roman times (Brownrigg and Crouwel, 2017) and not in during the medieval period as most experts defend.”
    Quote in the paperNot a substantial claim0 of 1 sources checked
    • cites Brownrigg and Crouwel, 2017 source

  • Probably not a substantial claim. The paper’s conclusions may not depend on it. The paper may give no reason why it holds. It may state two separate claims as one.

    Premisenone given

    Mountainous regions normally became borders between different Roman provinces, so there were towns or official headquarters to control the frontiers and farm taxes at stationes.

    “Furthermore, mountainous regions normally became borders between different Roman provinces, so there were towns or official headquarters to control the frontiers and farm taxes (portoria -quadraguessima or quiquagessima) at stationes.”
    Quote in the paperNot a substantial claim

  • Probably not a substantial claim. The paper may give no reason why it holds. It may state two separate claims as one.

    Interpretationreasoning

    Conflictive points required a particular type of transport infrastructure that should have left some sort of archaeological trace or have continued to be in use up to modern times.

    “These conflictive points required a particular type of transport infrastructure that should have left some sort of archaeological trace or have continued to be in use up to modern times.”
    Quote in the paperNot a substantial claim
    • Rests on an assumption: Pack animals are capable of climbing up gradients around 43% on stable surfaces.

  • Probably not a substantial claim. The paper’s conclusions may not depend on it. It may state two separate claims as one.

    Premisenone given

    Through winter, extreme weather conditions affected transport in mountainous regions due to snow and ice on main routes, limiting land transport except for military reasons.

    “Through winter the extreme weather conditions affected transport in the mountainous regions due to snow and ice on the main routes.These conditions limited land transport during winter periods except for military reasons.”
    Quote in the paperNot a substantial claim

  • Probably not a substantial claim. The paper’s conclusions may not depend on it. The paper may give no reason why it holds.

    Premisenone given

    The Shuttle Radar Topography Mission (SRTM) project carried out by NASA in 2015 has allowed 30 m DEM precision worldwide.

    “The Shuttle Radar Topography Mission (SRTM) project carried out by the NASA in 2015 has allowed us to have 30 m DEM precision worldwide.”
    Quote in the paperNot a substantial claim

  • Probably not a substantial claim. The paper’s conclusions may not depend on it. The paper may give no reason why it holds. It may state two separate claims as one.

    Premisenone given

    The Alps separate the Italian Peninsula from Central Europe, and even today, it is a perfect barrier between these two regions.

    “This mountain range separates the Italian Peninsula from Central Europe, and even today, it is a perfect barrier between these two regions.”
    Quote in the paperNot a substantial claim

  • Probably not a substantial claim. The paper’s conclusions may not depend on it. The paper may give no reason why it holds.

    Premisenone given

    Most of our knowledge on land transport in mountainous zones in the Roman period comes from the evidence from the Alps.

    “Most of our knowledge on land transport in mountainous zones in the Roman period comes from the evidence from the Alps.”
    Quote in the paperNot a substantial claim

  • Probably not a substantial claim. The paper’s conclusions may not depend on it. The paper may give no reason why it holds.

    Interpretationreasoning

    The great effort in building this transport infrastructure cannot be explained in economic terms.

    “Such a great effort in building this transport infrastructure cannot be explained in economic terms.”
    Quote in the paperNot a substantial claim

  • It may state two separate claims as one.

    Premisecitation

    Roman roads in the Pennine Alps were located following the line of most accessible alpine tracks and provided a suitable time expenditure.

    “A detailed study of the main Pennine Alps passes on the basis to land cover and slope (see Fig. 11) (Rogers, 2014, 64), confirm the fact that Roman roads were located following the line of most accessible alpine tracks and provided a suitable time expenditure.”
    Quote in the paperSubstantial claim0 of 1 sources checked
    • cites Rogers, 2014, 64

      Couldn’t be matched to a paper in Crossref, so it can’t be checked.

  • It may state two separate claims as one.

    Interpretationreasoning

    The Alpine land routes were vital for logistics, information and political communications for the Roman Empire.

    “In logistic terms they were vital and also so the information and political communications for the Roman Empire could flow.”
    Quote in the paperSubstantial claim
    • Rests on an assumption: The Alps are a physical barrier between Italy and significant territories of northern Europe.

  • It may state two separate claims as one.

    Interpretationreasoning

    The Alps were geographically important to the Romans, and crossing them was important for military and commercial reasons.

    “These epigraphic and written testimonies provide the geographical importance of the Alps as far as the Romans are concerned as well as the importance to be able to cross them for both, military and commercial reasons.”
    Quote in the paperSubstantial claim
    • Rests on an assumption: The Alps are a physical barrier between Italy and significant territories of northern Europe.

  • It may state two separate claims as one.

    Premisecitation

    At Bard, gradients are larger than 6-8%; at Montquert, 10%; at Pierre Taille, 7%.

    “There are parts at Bard with gradients larger than 6-8%, at Montquert of 10% and Pierre Taille of 7%, which were almost impossible for heavy wagons (MolloMezzena, 1992, 62), so only light carts and pack animals could cover this part of the route.”
    Quote in the paperSubstantial claim0 of 1 sources checked
    • cites MolloMezzena, 1992, 62

      Couldn’t be matched to a paper in Crossref, so it can’t be checked.

  • It may state two separate claims as one.

    Premisecitation

    In summer 218 BCE, Hannibal crossed the Pyrenees with 80,000 men, 11,000 cavalrymen and 37 elephants, from near Aixalelles to Illiberis (Elna), avoiding the coastal route controlled by Romans near Emporion.

    “In the summer of 218 BCE, Hannibal crossed the Pyrenees with 80.000 men, 11.000 cavalrymen and 37 elephants (Polybius XXXV.2;Livius XXV.2-3; Appian, Hann.4) from possible camps near Aixalelles to Illiberis (Elna), avoiding the coastal route controlled by the Romans near Emporion.”
    Quote in the paperSubstantial claim0 of 3 sources checked
    • cites Polybius XXXV.2

      Couldn’t be matched to a paper in Crossref, so it can’t be checked.

    • cites Livius XXV.2-3

      Couldn’t be matched to a paper in Crossref, so it can’t be checked.

    • cites Appian, Hann.4

      Couldn’t be matched to a paper in Crossref, so it can’t be checked.

  • It may state two separate claims as one.

    Premisecitation

    The two critical points of route 2 were solved by building three bridges in the narrow gorge of Organyà (Tresponts), which were rebuilt by Bishop Ermegol of Urgell in the 11th century.

    “The two critical points of this route were solved by building three bridges in the narrow gorge of Organyà (Tresponts), which were also rebuilt by Bishop Ermegol of Urgell in the 11th century (Padró, 1976).”
    Quote in the paperNot a substantial claim0 of 1 sources checked
    • cites Padró, 1976

      Couldn’t be matched to a paper in Crossref, so it can’t be checked.

  • It may state two separate claims as one.

    Premisecitation

    The gradient limitations applied were 43% for cavalrymen, 13% for elephants, and 5% for wagons.

    “The limitations in gradient that were applied were 43% gradient for cavalry men, 13% gradient for elephants and 5% for wagons (Lawton, 2004).”
    Quote in the paperSubstantial claim0 of 1 sources checked
    • cites Lawton, 2004

      Couldn’t be matched to a paper in Crossref, so it can’t be checked.

  • It may state two separate claims as one.

    Premisereasoning

    The most feasible route for Hannibal's army was via Coll d'Ares, or the army split into two, each taking one of the two routes in less than 11 days.

    “Therefore, the author concludes that the most feasible route was via Coll d'Ares or even the possibility that the army split into two, each taking one of the two routes in less than 11 days.”
    Quote in the paperSubstantial claim0 of 1 sources checked
    • cites Muñoz, 2017

      Couldn’t be matched to a paper in Crossref, so it can’t be checked.

  • Probably not a substantial claim. The paper’s conclusions may not depend on it. The paper may give no reason why it holds.

    Interpretationnone given

    The Segre itinerary had been an important military route since Republican times.

    “Besides, the Segre itinerary had been an important military route since Republican times when Pompey or Caesar reached to the mid Ebro valley travelling, along this line.”
    Quote in the paperNot a substantial claim

  • Probably not a substantial claim. The paper may give no reason why it holds.

    Interpretationnone given

    The Romans put a lot of effort and resources into infrastructures in mountainous regions because they became strategic for military, administrative and economic reasons.

    “However, the Romans put a lot effort and resources into the infrastructures in the mountainous regions, because they became strategic for military, administrative and economic reasons.”
    Quote in the paperNot a substantial claim
    • Rests on an assumption: Augustus conquered most mountainous areas in the Western Roman Empire from the Asturo-Cantabrian range to the Alps and the Pyrenees in the last decades of the 1st century BCE.

  • Probably not a substantial claim. The paper’s conclusions may not depend on it. The paper may give no reason why it holds.

    Interpretationnone given

    Mountainous routes were still the hardest and most difficult parts of the road network.

    “In spite of this military control and urbanisation, mountainous routes were still the hardest and most difficult parts of the road network.”
    Quote in the paperNot a substantial claim

  • It may state two separate claims as one.

    Interpretationreasoning

    When the strategic role of mountainous routes decreased from the third century onwards, economic and social functions were not enough to maintain them, and they lost importance.

    “However, when this strategic role decreased from the third century onwards, the economic and social functions were not enough to maintain these mountainous routes, and therefore lost importance.”
    Quote in the paperNot a substantial claim

  • It may state two separate claims as one.

    Study design and conductcitation

    Performance results are compared to the quantity of pottery, coins and marble in the Cerdanya region and Iulia Libica, and can help understand transhumance routes and political events.

    “In the NE Pyrenees, performance results are compared to the quantity of pottery, coins and marble that appears in the Cerdanya region and the city of Iulia Libica (Guardia et al., 2017), but can help to understand transhumance routes and political events.”
    Quote in the paperSubstantial claim0 of 1 sources checked
    • cites Guardia et al., 2017

      Couldn’t be matched to a paper in Crossref, so it can’t be checked.

  • Probably not a substantial claim. The paper may give no reason why it holds. It may state two separate claims as one.

    Interpretationnone given

    Only determined Roman policies made it possible to create the first land corridors in the Alps and Pyrenees, which continued in medieval times.

    “Only determined Roman policies made it possible to create these first land corridors in the Alps and Pyrenees, which became networks for the civilisation the wild mountainous regions, and which continued likewise in medieval times.”
    Quote in the paperNot a substantial claim
    • Rests on an assumption: The Alps are a physical barrier between Italy and significant territories of northern Europe.
    • Rests on an assumption: Augustus conquered most mountainous areas in the Western Roman Empire from the Asturo-Cantabrian range to the Alps and the Pyrenees in the last decades of the 1st century BCE.

  • Probably not a substantial claim. The paper’s conclusions may not depend on it.

    Study design and conductnone given

    Roman transport models tested the distributions of archaeological material along these routes and key points on the road network infrastructure.

    “At the present, such Roman transport models tested the distributions of archaeological material along these routes and key points on the road network infrastructure.”
    Quote in the paperNot a substantial claim

  • Probably not a substantial claim. The paper may give no reason why it holds.

    Interpretationnone given

    Modelling transport networks in GIS has become an alternative way to study these land routes and their efficiency in terms of cost and time.

    “Modelling transport networks in GIS has becomes an alternative way to study these land routes from different points of view, as also to study their efficiency in terms of cost and time.”
    Quote in the paperNot a substantial claim

  • It may state two separate claims as one.

    Interpretationreasoning

    Iulia Libica may have operated as a control point on this route across the Pyrenees without any commercial interest, but it was an important strategic pass in terms of military logistics.

    “Therefore, Iulia Libica may have operated as a control point on this route across the Pyrenees without any commercial interest, but it was an important strategic pass in terms of military logistics.”
    Quote in the paperNot a substantial claim
    • Rests on an assumption: From the early Roman Republican period, there were three main routes crossing the NE Pyrenees.

  • It may state two separate claims as one.

    Interpretationnone given

    The transport network in the mountainous ranges worked quite well during the High Empire, but lost strength from the end of the second and third century onwards.

    “However, the transport network in the mountainous ranges worked quite well during the High Empire, but it seemed to lose strength from the end of the second and third century onwards.”
    Quote in the paperSubstantial claim

  • Probably not a substantial claim. The paper’s conclusions may not depend on it. The paper may give no reason why it holds. It may state two separate claims as one.

    Interpretationnone given

    High mountains became major barriers for land transport and still are today, despite technological developments.

    “High mountains became major barriers for land transport and they are still today, despite the technological developments.”
    Quote in the paperNot a substantial claim
    • Rests on an assumption: The Alps are a physical barrier between Italy and significant territories of northern Europe.
59 of 59

  • The paper relies on this without support.

    Pack animals are capable of climbing up gradients around 43% on stable surfaces.

    “Pack animals are capable of climbing up gradients around 43% on stable surfaces, so they are the most suitable means of transport on steep slopes.”

  • The paper relies on this without support.

    Loads would have been lighter in mountainous conditions, and speeds were probably reduced by 20% with changes in altitude above 300 m.

    “However, loads would have been lighter in mountainous conditions; also, speeds were probably reduced by 20% with changes in altitude above 300 m.”

  • The paper relies on this without support.

    The Alps are a physical barrier between Italy and significant territories of northern Europe.

    “The Alps are located as a physical barrier between Italy and significant territories of northern Europe, which is the reason why they need these land routes to be built with such care.”

  • The paper relies on this without support.

    From the early Roman Republican period, there were three main routes crossing the NE Pyrenees.

    “From the early Roman Republican period, there were three main routes crossing in the NE Pyrenees (see Fig. 12), even though the easiest one was the via Heraklea (later via Augusta), parallel to the Mediterranean coast with nearly no slopes.”

  • The paper relies on this without support.

    The easiest route across the NE Pyrenees was the via Heraklea (later via Augusta), parallel to the Mediterranean coast with nearly no slopes.

    “From the early Roman Republican period, there were three main routes crossing in the NE Pyrenees (see Fig. 12), even though the easiest one was the via Heraklea (later via Augusta), parallel to the Mediterranean coast with nearly no slopes.”

  • The paper relies on this without support.

    Augustus conquered most mountainous areas in the Western Roman Empire from the Asturo-Cantabrian range to the Alps and the Pyrenees in the last decades of the 1st century BCE.

    “Augustus conquered most mountainous areas in the Western Roman Empire from the Asturo-Cantabrian range to the Alps and the Pyrenees in the last decades of the 1st century BCE.”

  • The paper relies on this without support.

    These mountainous areas were the last unsubmitted territories within the Roman frontier, controlled by indigenous highland tribes, but without rich economic resources.

    “They were the last no submitted territories within the Roman frontier controlled by indigenous highland tribes, but without rich economic resources.”
7 of 7

Self-check

Percentages, sums and reported differences re-computed from the paper’s own numbers.

Each contradiction between two passages listed here was confirmed by an independent check.

  • Downriver cost ratio does not match the listed costs

    Minor

    The listed downriver cost divided by the sea cost is about 3.40, not the reported ratio of 3.6. The difference is too large to result from rounding the displayed costs.

    Reported 3.6 · recomputed 3.402062

  • The Tresponts gorge is assigned to different numbered routes

    Minor

    The discussion of Iulia Libica places Tresponts on route 2, while the earlier route analysis identifies the Segre path through Tresponts as route 3. The route numbering is therefore inconsistent.

2 of 2

Citations

Cites

Flagged first, then by citations

1 of the 28 references couldn’t be matched to a known paper.

Research works printed but not linked: 5

  1. Grewe, 2004, Alle Wege führen nach Rom –Römer straßen im Rheinland und anderswo, vol. 16, 9
  2. Guardia, 2017, Circuits comercials a Iulia Libica (Llívia): visions a partir de les ceràmiquesimarbres, Revista d'Arqueologia de Ponent, 27, 11
  3. Lawton, 2004, vol. 1
  4. Padró, 1976, Aportacions al coneixement de la via romana de Iulia Libica a Ilerda, Cypsela, 1, 141
  5. Raepsaet, 1982, Attelageantiquesdansle nord de la Gaule: les systemes de traction par equides, Trier, 45, 215

Cited by

Sorted by citations

Related

Metadata

Authors
Carreras, C., De Soto, P., & Muñoz, A.
Affiliations
Universitat Autònoma de Barcelona (ES)
Venue
Journal of Archaeological Science: Reports
Publisher
Elsevier BV
Published
2019-06
Volume
25
Pages
280-293
ISSN
2352-409X (ISSN-L)
DOI
10.1016/j.jasrep.2019.04.011
OpenAlex
W2940900662
Cited by
26
References
28
Citations by year
2026: 1 · 2025: 6 · 2024: 5 · 2023: 4 · 2022: 1 · 2021: 6 · 2020: 3
FWCI
31.63
Type
journal article
Language
en
Open access
Licence
Locations
  • Journal of Archaeological Science Reports (publishedVersion)
  • RECERCAT (Consorci de Serveis Universitaris de Catalunya) (submittedVersion)
Funders
Horizon 2020 (706260)
Topics
  • Social Sciences › Arts and Humanities › Classics › Classical Antiquity Studies
  • Social Sciences › Arts and Humanities › Archeology (arts and humanities) › Ancient Mediterranean Archaeology and History
  • Social Sciences › Arts and Humanities › Archeology (arts and humanities) › Ancient and Medieval Archaeology Studies
Keywords
Roman roads, Roman Empire, mountainous terrain, Alps, Pyrenees, road infrastructure, transportation networks, network analysis, travel cost

About these checks

Registry, retraction, Cites and statistics results are computed, not judged, with one exception: a printed reference that no index lists is read once by a model before it counts as a citation error. Claims are extracted by a model and kept only when their quote appears verbatim in the text; each cited source is then checked, with a model’s help, for whether it says what the claim relies on. Those verdicts can be wrong — read the claim’s quote and the cited source before relying on one.

A language model drew the claims from the paper on 2026-11-10, under version 3 of the claim definition (model deepseek-v4.1-flash, prompt extract-v3).

A second model labelled each claim on 2026-11-10 (model jev-1.13-20260917, definition revision gold-guideline-v0.2).

Statistics and arithmetic are recomputed, not judged.

Confidence bands are shown only for fields calibrated on our annotated test set. None is calibrated yet, so no band is shown.

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