The DOI matches its Crossref record; 412 of the 417 references it cites were found in a registry or an index.
How many words do we read per minute? A review and meta-analysis of reading rate
Open accessAbstract
Based on the analysis of 190 studies (18,573 participants), we estimate that the average silent reading rate for adults in English is 238 words per minute (wpm) for non-fiction and 260 wpm for fiction. The difference can be predicted by taking into account the length of the words, with longer words in non-fiction than in fiction. The estimates are lower than the numbers often cited in scientific and popular writings. The reasons for the overestimates are reviewed. The average oral reading rate (based on 77 studies and 5965 participants) is 183 wpm. Reading rates are lower for children, old adults, and readers with English as second language. The reading rates are in line with maximum listening speed and do not require the assumption of reading-specific language processing. Within each group/task there are reliable individual differences, which are not yet fully understood. For silent reading of English non-fiction most adults fall in the range of 175–300 wpm; for fiction the range is 200–320 wpm. Reading rates in other languages can be predicted reasonably well by taking into account the number of words these languages require to convey the same message as in English.
Overview
The claims and statistics of this paper haven’t been checked yet.
Run the check — free, no account needed. It reads the open-access text and checks the sources it cites.
Integrity signals
Registry
Cites
Statistics
Verification
Claims the paper makes
The claims and statistics of this paper haven’t been checked yet.
Run the check — free, no account needed. It reads the open-access text and checks the sources it cites.
Claims other papers make about this one
Each is checked against this paper’s own text: does it say what the citing paper says it does?
The source backs part of the claim, not all of it — or backs it for a different population, condition or comparison.
In the citing paper
“Allowing that each story would need to be read several times, this meant an estimated reading time of 1 minute for 238 words gave an exposure time of 18 minutes for three readings of a 1,500 word story [49].”
From Five studies evaluating the impact on mental health and mood of recalling, reading, and discussing fiction (2022) · cites this paper as [49]
Experimental — accuracy not yet measuredThe cited source says what the claim attributes to it.
In the citing paper
“Nevertheless, his results do show that scanning a text and reading a text occurs in give very different results in words-per-minute metrics.”
From Five studies evaluating the impact on mental health and mood of recalling, reading, and discussing fiction (2022) · cites this paper as Brysbaert (2019)
The cited source says what the claim attributes to it.
In the citing paper
“Informed consent-a cornerstone of ethical data collection-is often undermined by lengthy and complex privacy policies, which in this review averaged 6113 words and would take approximately 26 min to read 55 .”
From Privacy in consumer wearable technologies: a living systematic analysis of data policies across leading manufacturers (2025) · cites this paper as [55]
Self-check
Percentages, sums and reported differences re-computed from the paper’s own numbers.
The self-check needs the paper’s full text.
Citations
Cites
Levels of processing: A framework for memory research
Craik, F. I. M., & Lockhart, R. S. (1972) · Journal of Verbal Learning and Verbal Behavior · doi:10.1016/s0022-5371(72)80001-x · Cited by 9,566
Eye movements in reading and information processing: 20 years of research
Rayner, K. (1998) · Psychological Bulletin · doi:10.1037/0033-2909.124.3.372 · Cited by 7,979
The magical number 4 in short-term memory: A reconsideration of mental storage capacity
Cowan, N. (2001) · Behavioral and Brain Sciences · doi:10.1017/s0140525x01003922 · Cited by 6,779
Toward a model of text comprehension and production.
Kintsch, W., & van Dijk, T. A. (1978) · Psychological Review · doi:10.1037/0033-295x.85.5.363 · Cited by 5,298
Working Memory: Theories, Models, and Controversies
Baddeley, A. (2012) · Annual Review of Psychology · doi:10.1146/annurev-psych-120710-100422 · Cited by 4,271
The information available in brief visual presentations
Sperling, G. (1960) · Psychological Monographs: General and Applied · doi:10.1037/h0093759 · Cited by 4,042
mclust 5: Clustering, Classification and Density Estimation Using Gaussian Finite Mixture Models
Scrucca, L., Fop, M., Murphy, T. B., & Adrian, E. R. (2016) · The R Journal · doi:10.32614/rj-2016-021 · Cited by 2,914
Neurocognitive Aging and the Compensation Hypothesis
Reuter‐Lorenz, P. A., & Cappell, K. A. (2008) · Current Directions in Psychological Science · doi:10.1111/j.1467-8721.2008.00570.x · Cited by 1,802
Bayesian inference for psychology. Part II: Example applications with JASP
Wagenmakers, E., Love, J., Marsman, M., Jamil, T., Ly, A., Verhagen, J., Selker, R., Gronau, Q. F., Dropmann, D., boutin, B., et al. (2017) · Psychonomic Bulletin & Review · doi:10.3758/s13423-017-1323-7 · Cited by 1,788
Fuchs, L. S., Fuchs, D., Hosp, M. K., & Jenkins, J. R. (2001) · Scientific Studies of Reading · doi:10.1207/s1532799xssr0503_3 · Cited by 1,527
Flagged first, then by citations
5 of the 417 references couldn’t be matched to a known paper.
Research works printed but not linked: 5
- Alter, 2012, Your E-book is reading you, Wall Street Journal
- Buari, 2017, *Buari-Chen Malay Reading Chart (BCMRC): Contextual sentence and random words 2-in-1 design in Malay language, Pertanika Journal of Science and Technology, 25, 135
- Monteiro de Castro, 2005, *Development and validation of the MNREAD reading acuity chart in Portuguese, Arquivos Brasileiros de Oftalmologia, 68, 777
- Sekey, 1982, *Text display by“ saccadic scrolling”, Visible Language, 16, 62
- Stoll, 1974, *Évaluation de trois types d'exercices de lecture rapide, Le Travail Humain, 37, 249
Cited by
Sorted by citations
Items 401–500 of 569
Poltronieri-Méndez, S. (2022) · Revista Ensayos Pedagógicos · doi:10.15359/rep.17-2.16
Reading, Literature, and Psychology in Action
(2023) · Frontiers research topics · doi:10.3389/978-2-8325-2303-2
Robinson, V. (2023) · Carleton University's Institutional Repository (MacOdrum Library, Carleton University) · doi:10.22215/etd/2023-15539
Af-Mix: A Gaze-Aware Learning System with Attention Feedback in Mixed RealityPreprint
Liu, S., Toreini, P., & Maedche, A. (2023) · SSRN Electronic Journal · doi:10.2139/ssrn.4529502
Ballot order effects in independent director elections
González, T. A., Calluzzo, P., & Granic, G. D. (2023) · Journal of Behavioral and Experimental Finance · doi:10.1016/j.jbef.2023.100835
Kelzang, Tshering, N., Tshering, T., & Tshering, D. (2023) · Asian Journal of Education and Social Studies · doi:10.9734/ajess/2023/v49i41185
velocidade de lectura en lingua galega. Unha aproximación
Gulías, C. H. (2023) · Cadernos de Lingua · doi:10.32766/cdl.40.778
Technological responses to distracting media multitasking in academic learning
Biedermann, D. (2023) · Publication Server of Goethe University Frankfurt am Main (Goethe University Frankfurt) · doi:10.21248/gups.81400 · Cited by 1
(2022) · Oxford University Press eBooks · doi:10.1093/oxfordhb/9780198845003.002.0088
(2022) · Oxford University Press eBooks · doi:10.1093/oxfordhb/9780198845003.002.0006
(2022) · Oxford University Press eBooks · doi:10.1093/oxfordhb/9780198845003.002.0004
Varkentin, E., Brich, I. R., Sünkel, U., von Thaler, A., Eschweiler, G. W., & Huff, M. (2024) · doi:10.31234/osf.io/knpv5
Development of EFL reading rate in adolescents in Japan
Yamashita, J., Kusanagi, K., & Shiotsu, T. (2023) · Journal of Second Language Studies · doi:10.1075/jsls.22005.yam
McKenzie, R., & Feng, B. (2024) · doi:10.2196/preprints.58099
Decoding News Avoidance: An Immersive Dialogical Method for Inter-generational Studies
Marques-Pita, M. (2024) · Lecture notes in computer science · doi:10.1007/978-3-031-61543-6_28
To Read or Not to Read: Predicting Student Engagement in Interactive Reading
Klebanov, B. B., Weeks, J. P., & Sinharay, S. (2024) · Lecture notes in computer science · doi:10.1007/978-3-031-64299-9_15
Weil, R., Abdelnabi, S., Fritz, M., & Hasan, R. (2024) · IEEE European Symposium on Security and Privacy Workshops (EuroS&PW) · doi:10.1109/eurospw61312.2024.00062
Polityka prawa – próba oceny strategii rządzenia Sądem Najwyższym w PRL
Majewski, J. (2023) · Historia i Polityka · doi:10.12775/hip.2023.005
Haupt, M., Graumann, M., Teng, S., Kaltenbach, C., & Cichy, R. M. (2024) · doi:10.7554/elife.98148.2
Luca, M. D., Nardo, D., Rizzo, G. C., Daini, R., Tavazzi, S., & Zeri, F. (2024) · Frontiers in Psychology · doi:10.3389/fpsyg.2024.1448817
Boudewyns, V., Paquin, R. S., Sullivan, H. W., & O’Donoghue, A. C. (2024) · Patient Education and Counseling · doi:10.1016/j.pec.2024.108598
Dijkstra, T. (2025) · Global Intellectual History · doi:10.1080/23801883.2025.2456171
La Nueva Frontera: IA, Industria 4.0 y el Desarrollo Sostenible
Chávez, D. A. S., Muñoz, L. A. L., Arvizo, U. M., de la Garza, J. A. U., Martínez, R. G., Morales, S. A. N., Meraz, T. F. L., Portillo, M. P., Ávila, C. Q., Ramírez, L. G. E., et al. (2024) · doi:10.23913/9786078830435
Contracting and Dispute Resolution
Elvy, S.-A., & Kim, N. S. (2025) · Cambridge University Press eBooks · doi:10.1017/9781009279079.017
2022: Mobilization and Optimization
Gupta, D. (2025) · Springer eBooks · doi:10.1007/978-981-96-1824-8_6
Measuring Real-World Understanding of Patterns in Data Graphics
Rice, K., Bell, S., Wing, T., Hofmann, H., & du Toit, N. (2025) · IEEE Computer Graphics and Applications · doi:10.1109/mcg.2025.3565834
Eye movement characteristics, cognitive characteristics and neural mechanisms of speed reading
Sui, X., Yusi, A. N., Xu, Y., & Li, Y. (2025) · Advances in Psychological Science · doi:10.3724/sp.j.1042.2025.1358
Song, Y., Keller, T. A., Sebe, N., & Welling, M. (2025) · Synthesis lectures on computer vision · doi:10.1007/978-3-031-88111-4_1
Quantifying the burden of organisational bulk emails in a business school
de Castro, V. B. (2025) · Higher Education Research & Development · doi:10.1080/07294360.2025.2510662 · Cited by 1
Automatic eye-movement-based screening for dyslexia using transformer pretrainingPreprint
Laurinavichyute, A., Lopukhina, A., & Reich, D. L. (2025) · PsyArXiv (OSF Preprints) · doi:10.31234/osf.io/zyxmd_v1
Petley, L., Gascoyne, S. J., & Hoffman, M. (2025) · Auditory Perception & Cognition · doi:10.1080/25742442.2025.2518040
Disch, L., Fessl, A., Franza, S., Kimmerle, J., & Pammer‐Schindler, V. (2025) · Discover Education · doi:10.1007/s44217-025-00613-4
ВРЕМЯ ЧТЕНИЯ КАК МЕТРИКА УДОБОЧИТАЕМОСТИ
Яковлева, Я. А. (2025) · Bulletin of the Chuvash State Pedagogical University named after I Y Yakovlev · doi:10.37972/chgpu.2025.127.2.007
Varkentin, E., Brich, I. R., Suenkel, U., von Thaler, A., Eschweiler, G. W., & Huff, M. (2025) · Memory & Cognition · doi:10.3758/s13421-025-01736-7
Kotseruba, I., & Tsotsos, J. K. (2025) · Oxford University Press eBooks · doi:10.1093/oso/9780192844835.002.0005
Kotseruba, I., & Tsotsos, J. K. (2025) · Oxford University Press eBooks · doi:10.1093/oso/9780192844835.002.0007
Kotseruba, I., & Tsotsos, J. K. (2025) · Oxford University Press eBooks · doi:10.1093/oso/9780192844835.003.0007
Kotseruba, I., & Tsotsos, J. K. (2025) · Oxford University Press eBooks · doi:10.1093/oso/9780192844835.003.0001
Taxonomies of Cognitive Architectures
Kotseruba, I., & Tsotsos, J. K. (2025) · Oxford University Press eBooks · doi:10.1093/oso/9780192844835.003.0004
Practical Applications of Cognitive Architectures
Kotseruba, I., & Tsotsos, J. K. (2025) · Oxford University Press eBooks · doi:10.1093/oso/9780192844835.003.0010
Cognitive Architectures, AI, and Cognitive Science
Kotseruba, I., & Tsotsos, J. K. (2025) · Oxford University Press eBooks · doi:10.1093/oso/9780192844835.003.0003
Kotseruba, I., & Tsotsos, J. K. (2025) · Oxford University Press eBooks · doi:10.1093/oso/9780192844835.002.0004
Kotseruba, I., & Tsotsos, J. K. (2025) · Oxford University Press eBooks · doi:10.1093/oso/9780192844835.003.0008
Challenges of the Past and Opportunities Ahead
Kotseruba, I., & Tsotsos, J. K. (2025) · Oxford University Press eBooks · doi:10.1093/oso/9780192844835.003.0013
Kotseruba, I., & Tsotsos, J. K. (2025) · Oxford University Press eBooks · doi:10.1093/oso/9780192844835.003.0006
Cognitive Architectures in the Deep Learning Era
Kotseruba, I., & Tsotsos, J. K. (2025) · Oxford University Press eBooks · doi:10.1093/oso/9780192844835.003.0012
Kotseruba, I., & Tsotsos, J. K. (2025) · Oxford University Press eBooks · doi:10.1093/oso/9780192844835.003.0009
What Are Cognitive Architectures?
Kotseruba, I., & Tsotsos, J. K. (2025) · Oxford University Press eBooks · doi:10.1093/oso/9780192844835.003.0002
Evaluating Cognitive Architectures
Kotseruba, I., & Tsotsos, J. K. (2025) · Oxford University Press eBooks · doi:10.1093/oso/9780192844835.003.0011
Developing short stories in teaching both physics content and reading skills
Minerales, M. A. A., Malayao, S. O., Salic-Hairulla, M. A., Sayson, N. L. B., & Magallanes, J. B. (2025) · Journal of Education and Learning (EduLearn) · doi:10.11591/edulearn.v19i4.21470
Talk to me! Examining parent-coach communication frequency and satisfaction in youth soccer
Eckardt, V. C., Pallare-Herbeck, M., Hufer, D., & Schwab, S. (2025) · International Journal of Sport and Exercise Psychology · doi:10.1080/1612197x.2025.2525244
A lifetime of reading experience facilitates the perception of crowded letters
Winsler, K., & Luck, S. J. (2025) · Journal of Memory and Language · doi:10.1016/j.jml.2025.104689
Liu, Z., Moon, J., Liu, J., & Shi, Y. (2025) · SSRN Electronic Journal · doi:10.2139/ssrn.5387918
Corpora of Eye Movements in Reading
Drieghe, D., Vieira, J. M. M., & Kuperman, V. (2025) · Elsevier eBooks · doi:10.1016/b978-0-323-95504-1.00922-4
Chadli, H., Zeng, B., & Zhou, X. (2025) · Lecture notes in computer science · doi:10.1007/978-3-032-00652-3_15
Objectifying the benefits of digitalisation as a tool for sustainable public decision-making
Fuka, J., Baťa, R., Šmíd, M., Kovářová, B., & Bohadlo, D. (2025) · International Journal of Environmental Science and Technology · doi:10.1007/s13762-025-06700-1
Tasneem, S. (2024) · Kurdish Studies · doi:10.53555/ks.v12i4.3941
Dyslexic Reliance on Statistical Knowledge and Lexical Processing Under Time-Pressure Conditions
Nardacchione, G., Zoccolotti, P., Angelelli, P., & Marinelli, C. V. (2025) · Communications in computer and information science · doi:10.1007/978-3-032-03021-4_29
(2025) · Natural language processing · doi:10.1075/nlp.16.c4
(2025) · Natural language processing · doi:10.1075/nlp.16.c3
(2025) · Natural language processing · doi:10.1075/nlp.16.pre
(2025) · Natural language processing · doi:10.1075/nlp.16.c9
(2025) · Natural language processing · doi:10.1075/nlp.16.index
(2025) · Natural language processing · doi:10.1075/nlp.16.c8
(2025) · Natural language processing · doi:10.1075/nlp.16.toc
Acartürk, C. (2025) · Natural language processing · doi:10.1075/nlp.16.c6
(2025) · Natural language processing · doi:10.1075/nlp.16.refs
(2025) · Natural language processing · doi:10.1075/nlp.16.c1
Acartürk, C. (2025) · Natural language processing · doi:10.1075/nlp.16 · Cited by 1
(2025) · Natural language processing · doi:10.1075/nlp.16.c5
(2025) · Natural language processing · doi:10.1075/nlp.16.prelim
(2025) · Natural language processing · doi:10.1075/nlp.16.c7
Bouvette, M. J., Dewees, R., Seo, D., Xing, J., Moore, V. A., Lam, A. B., Jiang, C., Choradia, N., & Nipp, R. D. (2025) · The Oncologist · doi:10.1093/oncolo/oyaf278
(2025) · Natural language processing · doi:10.1075/nlp.16.c2
(2025) · Natural language processing · doi:10.1075/nlp.16.ded
XShift: FPGA-efficient Binarized LLM with Joint Quantization and Sparsification
Zhou, S., Tian, H., Meng, S., Chen, J., Yu, J., & Wang, K. (2025) · ACM/IEEE Design Automation Conference (DAC) · doi:10.1109/dac63849.2025.11133363
K-6 Students’ Reading Beliefs and Practices
Kaya, J. (2025) · Reading Psychology · doi:10.1080/02702711.2025.2566029
Improving Readability of the Terms of Service
Lapin, K., & Lūžytė, A. (2025) · Lecture notes in networks and systems · doi:10.1007/978-3-032-05802-7_24
Specifically or generally fast during interaction? Analysing user pace across interactive tasksPreprint
Dowding, S., Cockburn, A., & Gutwin, C. A. (2025) · SSRN Electronic Journal · doi:10.2139/ssrn.5574180
Dyslexia in higher education: specific and global components of the reading profile
Vizzi, F., Marinelli, C. V., Iaia, M., Turi, M., Carlino, M. D., Zoccolotti, P., & Angelelli, P. (2025) · Reading and Writing · doi:10.1007/s11145-025-10688-y
The role of website interactivity in improving depression help-seeking intentions
McKenzie, R., & Feng, B. (2025) · Patient Education and Counseling · doi:10.1016/j.pec.2025.109391 · Cited by 1
Xiong, Y., Zhang, R., Zu, Y., Liu, W., Zhu, Z., Geng, J., Li, B., Cao, Q., & Zhou, X. (2025) · IEEE Transactions on Computer-Aided Design of Integrated Circuits and Systems · doi:10.1109/tcad.2025.3624135
SIGNAL: Dataset for Semantic and Inferred Grammar Neurological Analysis of Language
Komissarenko, A., Волошина, Е. В., Cheveleva, A., Semenkov, I., Serikov, O., & Ossadtchi, A. E. (2025) · Scientific Data · doi:10.1038/s41597-025-05966-x
Exploring Metacognitive Experiences by Simulating Internal Decisions of Information Access
Ukov, T. G., & Tsochev, G. (2025) · Systems · doi:10.3390/systems13110982
English reading expectations in Swedish higher education
Malmström, H., & Pecorari, D. (2025) · Journal of English for Academic Purposes · doi:10.1016/j.jeap.2025.101599
Development of a Web-Based Online Editorial Sentiment Analysis Extractor Tool
Dilag, C. R. V., Lachica, J. M. D. O., Dupaya, J. R. B., Tobias, E. J. P., & Ilao, A. L. (2025) · International Conference on ICT and Knowledge Engineering · doi:10.1109/ictke67052.2025.11274322
Spatial parameters of eye-movement control during reading in Russian-speaking children
Lopukhina, A., Eremicheva, T., Dragoy, O., & Parshina, O. (2026) · Journal of Experimental Child Psychology · doi:10.1016/j.jecp.2026.106564
Yingdong, G. (2025) · Theoretical and Applied Linguistics · doi:10.22250/24107190-2025-11-2-51
Diagnostic Tests for Reading Age and Dyslexia
Niolaki, G., Terzopoulos, A. R., & Masterson, J. (2025) · Elsevier eBooks · doi:10.1016/b978-0-323-95504-1.01007-3
Chattopadhyay, S., & Choudhari, S. G. (2025) · Journal of Datta Meghe Institute of Medical Sciences University · doi:10.4103/jdmimsu.jdmimsu_563_25
A world without violet: peculiar consequences of granting moral status to Artificial Intelligences
Topan, S. (2026) · AI & Society · doi:10.1007/s00146-025-02834-5 · Cited by 1
Phonological decoding and orthographic learning in poor and typical adult readersPreprint
Chrabaszcz, A. V., Lear, K., Durisko, C., & Fiez, J. A. (2026) · Research Square · doi:10.21203/rs.3.rs-8491793/v1
Readability and vagueness of privacy policies in mHealth applications: a multi-country analysis
Taneski, V., Schwarz, P., Bošnjak, L., Tropmann-Frick, M., & Brumen, B. (2026) · International Journal of Information Security · doi:10.1007/s10207-025-01203-z
Student Choice of Text in an Upper Secondary Independent Reading Program: A Quasi-Experimental Study
DeLoach, B., Rodriguez, S., & Chan, R. Y. (2026) · Reading Psychology · doi:10.1080/02702711.2026.2614447
Neuro-Cognitive Implementation of Orthographic Processing in Efficient Reading
Pauli, J. N. J., & Gagl, B. (2026) · Elsevier eBooks · doi:10.1016/b978-0-323-95504-1.01106-6
Rastle, K. (2026) · doi:10.21428/e2759450.dcf0298d
Metadata
- Authors
- Brysbaert, M.
- Affiliations
- Ghent University (BE)
- Corresponding author
- Brysbaert, Marc
- ORCID
- Brysbaert, Marc
- Venue
- Journal of Memory and Language
- Publisher
- Elsevier BV
- Published
- 2019-12
- Volume
- 109
- Pages
- 104047
- ISSN
- 0749-596X (ISSN-L)
- OpenAlex
- W2966983573
- Cited by
- 553
- References
- 417
- Citations by year
- 2026: 81 · 2025: 152 · 2024: 76 · 2023: 74 · 2022: 106 · 2021: 43 · 2020: 18 · 2019: 1
- FWCI
- 9.01
- Type
- journal article
- Language
- en
- Open access
- hybrid
- doi.org
- Licence
- Locations
- Journal of Memory and Language (publishedVersion, public-domain)
- Ghent University Academic Bibliography (Ghent University) (submittedVersion)
- Funders
- Universiteit Gent
- Max Planck Instituut voor Psycholinguïstiek
- Topics
- Social Sciences › Psychology › Developmental and Educational Psychology › Reading and Literacy Development
- Social Sciences › Education › Literacy and Educational Practices
- Life Sciences › Neuroscience › Cognitive Neuroscience › Neurobiology of Language and Bilingualism
- Keywords
- reading speed, silent reading, reading aloud, words per minute, nonfiction reading, fiction reading, word length, English as a second language, children's reading
About these checks
Registry, retraction, Cites and statistics results are computed, not judged, with one exception: a printed reference that no index lists is read once by a model before it counts as a citation error. Claims are extracted by a model and kept only when their quote appears verbatim in the text; each cited source is then checked, with a model’s help, for whether it says what the claim relies on. Those verdicts can be wrong — read the claim’s quote and the cited source before relying on one.
Statistics and arithmetic are recomputed, not judged.
Confidence bands are shown only for fields calibrated on our annotated test set. None is calibrated yet, so no band is shown.
What counts as a claim ›How we measure confidence ›How we check this ›
Are you an author, or do you see a problem with this page? Request a review
