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How many words do we read per minute? A review and meta-analysis of reading rate
Open accessAbstract
Based on the analysis of 190 studies (18,573 participants), we estimate that the average silent reading rate for adults in English is 238 words per minute (wpm) for non-fiction and 260 wpm for fiction. The difference can be predicted by taking into account the length of the words, with longer words in non-fiction than in fiction. The estimates are lower than the numbers often cited in scientific and popular writings. The reasons for the overestimates are reviewed. The average oral reading rate (based on 77 studies and 5965 participants) is 183 wpm. Reading rates are lower for children, old adults, and readers with English as second language. The reading rates are in line with maximum listening speed and do not require the assumption of reading-specific language processing. Within each group/task there are reliable individual differences, which are not yet fully understood. For silent reading of English non-fiction most adults fall in the range of 175–300 wpm; for fiction the range is 200–320 wpm. Reading rates in other languages can be predicted reasonably well by taking into account the number of words these languages require to convey the same message as in English.
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“Allowing that each story would need to be read several times, this meant an estimated reading time of 1 minute for 238 words gave an exposure time of 18 minutes for three readings of a 1,500 word story [49].”
From Five studies evaluating the impact on mental health and mood of recalling, reading, and discussing fiction (2022) · cites this paper as [49]
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“Nevertheless, his results do show that scanning a text and reading a text occurs in give very different results in words-per-minute metrics.”
From Five studies evaluating the impact on mental health and mood of recalling, reading, and discussing fiction (2022) · cites this paper as Brysbaert (2019)
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“Informed consent-a cornerstone of ethical data collection-is often undermined by lengthy and complex privacy policies, which in this review averaged 6113 words and would take approximately 26 min to read 55 .”
From Privacy in consumer wearable technologies: a living systematic analysis of data policies across leading manufacturers (2025) · cites this paper as [55]
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Gender bias at scale: Evidence from the usage of personal names
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ADULT LEARNERS: NEW NORMS ON THE NELSON-DENNY READING TEST FOR HEALTHCARE PROFESSIONALS
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Hearing Story Characters' Voices: Auditory Imagery During Reading
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BRITISH COURSES FOR ADULTS ON EFFECTIVE READING
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Not so fast: A reply to Benedetto et al. (2015)
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How Do Typographical Factors Affect Reading Text and Comprehension Performance in Arabic?
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Developing a Logarithmic Chinese Reading Acuity Chart
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A new principle for the standardization of long paragraphs for reading speed analysis
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An Oral Reading Fluency Assessment for Young Adult Career and Technical Education Students
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Reading continuous text from a one-line visual display
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Effects of speeded speech presentations on confidence‐weighted and traditional comprehension scores
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The reading rate and comprehension of adults with impaired reading skills or visual discomfort
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Reading improvement and college grades: a follow-up.
SMITH, D. E. P., & Wood, R. L. (1955) · Journal of Educational Psychology · doi:10.1037/h0042388 · Cited by 14
Trade-offs in Detecting Letters and Comprehending Text.
Oliver, W. L., Healy, A. F., & Mross, E. F. (2005) · Canadian Journal of Experimental Psychology/Revue canadienne de psychologie expérimentale · doi:10.1037/h0087471 · Cited by 14
Dysli, M., Vogel, N., & Abegg, M. H. (2014) · Frontiers in Human Neuroscience · doi:10.3389/fnhum.2014.00431 · Cited by 14
Development of the Portuguese version of a standardized reading test: the Radner-Coimbra Charts
Rosa, A. M., Farinha, C., Radner, W., Diendorfer, G., Silva, M. F., & Murta, J. (2016) · Arquivos Brasileiros de Oftalmologia · doi:10.5935/0004-2749.20160068 · Cited by 14
Investigation of Reading Strategies: I. Manipulating Strategies through Payoff Conditions
McConkie, G. W., & Rayner, K. (1974) · Journal of Reading Behavior · doi:10.1080/10862967409547072 · Cited by 13
Rate of visual perception as a factor in rate of reading.
Stroud, J. B. (1945) · Journal of Educational Psychology · doi:10.1037/h0058188 · Cited by 13
47.4: Empirical Evaluation of User Responses to Reading Text Rendered Using ClearType™ Technologies
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Validity of Korean Version Reading Speed Application and Measurement of Reading Speed: Pilot Study
Song, J., Kim, J.-H., & Hyung, S. (2016) · Journal of the Korean Ophthalmological Society · doi:10.3341/jkos.2016.57.4.642 · Cited by 13
Lexical and Sublexical Phonological Effects in Chinese Silent and Oral Reading
Pan, J.-E., Yan, M., Laubrock, J., & Shu, H. (2019) · Scientific Studies of Reading · doi:10.1080/10888438.2019.1583232 · Cited by 13
Munch, I. C., Jørgensen, A. R., & Radner, W. (2015) · Acta Ophthalmologica · doi:10.1111/aos.12845 · Cited by 12
Improving Silent Reading Performance Through Feedback on Eye Movements: A Feasibility Study
Korinth, S. P., & Fiebach, C. J. (2018) · Scientific Studies of Reading · doi:10.1080/10888438.2018.1439036 · Cited by 12
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Untersuchungen der Lesegeschwindigkeit in Abh�ngigkeit vom Bildungsgrad
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The relation between rate of reading and speed of association.
Traxler, A. E. (1934) · Journal of Educational Psychology · doi:10.1037/h0071145 · Cited by 12
Relations Between Reading and Speech Manifest Universal Phonological Principle
Shankweiler, D., & Fowler, C. A. (2019) · Annual Review of Linguistics · doi:10.1146/annurev-linguistics-011718-012419 · Cited by 11
Tortorelli, L. S. (2019) · Reading Psychology · doi:10.1080/02702711.2019.1621011 · Cited by 11
Effectiveness of various rates of silent reading of college students.
Greene, E. B. (1931) · Journal of Applied Psychology · doi:10.1037/h0075756 · Cited by 11
Speed and Comprehension in Reading
Letson, C. T. (1958) · The Journal of Educational Research · doi:10.1080/00220671.1958.10882536 · Cited by 11
A diachronic study of Chinese word length distribution.
Chen, H., & Liu, H. (2014) · Cited by 11
Toward developing a standardized Arabic continuous text reading chart
Alabdulkader, B., & Leat, S. J. (2016) · Journal of Optometry · doi:10.1016/j.optom.2016.03.003 · Cited by 11
Korean Version Self-testing Application for Reading Speed
Rhiu, S., Kim, M., Kim, J.-H., Lee, H. J., & Lim, T. (2017) · Korean Journal of Ophthalmology · doi:10.3341/kjo.2016.0042 · Cited by 11
The Effect of Screen Size of Mobile Devices on Reading Efficiency
Hsieh, Y.-C., Kuo, C.-T., & Lin, H. H. (2016) · Lecture notes in computer science · doi:10.1007/978-3-319-39943-0_42 · Cited by 10
Brussee, T., van Nispen, R. M. A., & van Rens, G. H. M. B. (2016) · Clinical and Experimental Optometry · doi:10.1111/cxo.12482 · Cited by 10
The Reading Habits of Superior College Students
Preston, R. C., & Tuft, E. N. (1948) · The Journal of Experimental Education · doi:10.1080/00220973.1948.11010380 · Cited by 10
The development of reading and study habits in college students.
Deal, R. W. (1934) · Journal of Educational Psychology · doi:10.1037/h0071476 · Cited by 10
The Relation of Reading Skill and Other Factors to the Academic Achievement of 2048 College Students
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Filters on computer displays – effects on legibility, performance and comfort
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The effect of VDU text-presentation rate on reading comprehension and reading speed
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UK data from 197 undergraduates for the Nelson Denny Reading Test
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Reading rate and immediate versus delayed retention.
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The effect of illumination on reading rate and comprehension of college students.
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Reading: A Potential Source of Academic Difficulty in Medical School
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Is This a Breakthrough in Reading
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Michigan Speed of Reading Tests
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The effects of reading practice with compressed speech on reading rate and listening comprehension
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The Effects of Special Reading Training Upon the Development of College Students’ Reading Skills
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Aspects of human performance in an intensive speech task
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Reading Ability and Selection for Teacher Education Programs.
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The measurement and improvement of silent reading among college freshmen
Booker, I. A. (1934) · Cited by 7
Reading abilities of business executives.
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Investigation of Reading Strategies: II. A Replication of Payoff Condition Effects
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Dumler, M. J. (1958) · The Journal of Educational Research · doi:10.1080/00220671.1958.10882531 · Cited by 7
A 50-year comparison of University of Minnesota freshmen's reading performance.
Eurich, A. C., & Kraetsch, G. A. (1982) · Journal of Educational Psychology · doi:10.1037//0022-0663.74.5.660 · Cited by 7
Effects of Sustained Silent Reading on Reading Rate among College Students.
Dwyer, E. J., & West, R. F. (1994) · Digital Commons - East Tennessee State University (East Tennessee State University) · Cited by 6
Faster flicker rate increases reading speed on CRTs
Bridgeman, B., & Montegut, M. J. (1993) · Proceedings of SPIE, the International Society for Optical Engineering/Proceedings of SPIE · doi:10.1117/12.152738 · Cited by 6
A new sentence generator providing material for maximum reading speed measurement
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Changes in reading performance during the freshman year of college.
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Searching for a word in Chinese text: insights from eye movement behaviour
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A Comparison of Four Methods of Increasing the Reading Speed of College Students
Henry, L. K., & Lauer, A. R. (1939) · UNI ScholarWorks (University of Northern Iowa) · Cited by 6
Evaluation of the Reading Program of the U. S. Naval Academy During Summer 1951
Potter, C. A. M. (1954) · Educational and Psychological Measurement · doi:10.1177/001316445401400121 · Cited by 5
Repeatability of the Universiti Teknologi MARA reading charts
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Unique Screener of Reading Fluency and Comprehension for Adolescents and Adults
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Ten Months of Digital Reading: An Exploratory Log Study
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The Impact of Diplopia on Reading
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An Examination of Reading Comprehension and Reading Rate in University Students
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The Correlation of Arab ELLs' Academic Reading Fluency in Arabic and English
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An experimental study of the reading-rate controller.
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A Study of Reading with a Handheld Computer
Lee, Y. S. (2003) · VTechWorks (Virginia Tech) · Cited by 4
The Prediction of Change in Grade Point Average from Initial Reading Rates.
King, P. T. (1969) · Cited by 4
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Flagged first, then by citations
5 of the 417 references couldn’t be matched to a known paper.
Research works printed but not linked: 5
- Alter, 2012, Your E-book is reading you, Wall Street Journal
- Buari, 2017, *Buari-Chen Malay Reading Chart (BCMRC): Contextual sentence and random words 2-in-1 design in Malay language, Pertanika Journal of Science and Technology, 25, 135
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- Sekey, 1982, *Text display by“ saccadic scrolling”, Visible Language, 16, 62
- Stoll, 1974, *Évaluation de trois types d'exercices de lecture rapide, Le Travail Humain, 37, 249
Cited by
Sorted by citations
Lakens, D. (2022) · Collabra Psychology · doi:10.1525/collabra.33267 · Cited by 1,962
Evaluating Large Language Models in Generating Synthetic HCI Research Data: a Case Study
Hämäläinen, P., Tavast, M., & Kunnari, A. (2023) · Proceedings of the 2023 CHI Conference on Human Factors in Computing Systems · doi:10.1145/3544548.3580688 · Cited by 248
Siegelman, N., Schroeder, S., Acartürk, C., Ahn, H.-D., Alexeeva, S., Amenta, S., Bertram, R., Bonandrini, R., Brysbaert, M., Chernova, D., et al. (2022) · Behavior Research Methods · doi:10.3758/s13428-021-01772-6 · Cited by 160
Self-citationIs the Science of Reading Just the Science of Reading English?
Share, D. L. (2021) · Reading Research Quarterly · doi:10.1002/rrq.401 · Cited by 148
Using Eye‐Tracking Measures to Predict Reading Comprehension
Mézière, D. C., Yu, L., Reichle, E. D., von der Malsburg, T., & McArthur, G. M. (2023) · Reading Research Quarterly · doi:10.1002/rrq.498 · Cited by 119
Metadata
- Authors
- Brysbaert, M.
- Affiliations
- Ghent University (BE)
- Corresponding author
- Brysbaert, Marc
- ORCID
- Brysbaert, Marc
- Venue
- Journal of Memory and Language
- Publisher
- Elsevier BV
- Published
- 2019-12
- Volume
- 109
- Pages
- 104047
- ISSN
- 0749-596X (ISSN-L)
- OpenAlex
- W2966983573
- Cited by
- 553
- References
- 417
- Citations by year
- 2026: 81 · 2025: 152 · 2024: 76 · 2023: 74 · 2022: 106 · 2021: 43 · 2020: 18 · 2019: 1
- FWCI
- 9.01
- Type
- journal article
- Language
- en
- Open access
- hybrid
- doi.org
- Licence
- Locations
- Journal of Memory and Language (publishedVersion, public-domain)
- Ghent University Academic Bibliography (Ghent University) (submittedVersion)
- Funders
- Universiteit Gent
- Max Planck Instituut voor Psycholinguïstiek
- Topics
- Social Sciences › Psychology › Developmental and Educational Psychology › Reading and Literacy Development
- Social Sciences › Education › Literacy and Educational Practices
- Life Sciences › Neuroscience › Cognitive Neuroscience › Neurobiology of Language and Bilingualism
- Keywords
- reading speed, silent reading, reading aloud, words per minute, nonfiction reading, fiction reading, word length, English as a second language, children's reading
About these checks
Registry, retraction, Cites and statistics results are computed, not judged, with one exception: a printed reference that no index lists is read once by a model before it counts as a citation error. Claims are extracted by a model and kept only when their quote appears verbatim in the text; each cited source is then checked, with a model’s help, for whether it says what the claim relies on. Those verdicts can be wrong — read the claim’s quote and the cited source before relying on one.
Statistics and arithmetic are recomputed, not judged.
Confidence bands are shown only for fields calibrated on our annotated test set. None is calibrated yet, so no band is shown.
What counts as a claim ›How we measure confidence ›How we check this ›
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