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Social norms and energy conservation
Abstract
This paper evaluates a series of programs run by a company called OPOWER to send Home Energy Report letters to residential utility customers comparing their electricity use to that of their neighbors. Using data from randomized natural field experiments at 600,000 treatment and control households across the United States, I estimate that the average program reduces energy consumption by 2.0%. The program provides additional evidence that non-price interventions can substantially and cost effectively change consumer behavior: the effect is equivalent to that of a short-run electricity price increase of 11 to 20%, and the cost effectiveness compares favorably to that of traditional energy conservation programs. Perhaps because the treatment included descriptive social norms, effects are heterogeneous: households in the highest decile of pre-treatment consumption decrease usage by 6.3%, while consumption by the lowest decile decreases by only 0.3%. A regression discontinuity design shows that different categories of “injunctive norms” played an insignificant role in encouraging relatively low users not to increase usage.
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“A large meta-analysis found that significant residential energy savings can be achieved [215], by targeting the right interventions to the right households [14,16,17].”
From Tackling climate change with machine learning (2023) · cites this paper as [16]
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Ling, M., Xu, L., & Chu, X. (2022) · Journal of Environmental Management · doi:10.1016/j.jenvman.2022.117102 · Cited by 14
Evaluating the effect of normative feedback on energy conservation in a shared space
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A Review of Behavioral Economics in Reproductive Health
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“…et al. 2007a; Cohen and Dupas 2010; Basinga et al. 2011; Milkman et al. 2011), anti-poverty programmes (Bertrand et al. 2004), education (Duflo and Hanna 2005), environment (Allcott 2011; Ferraro and Price 2013), and more extensively, in finance and insurance (Ashraf et al. 2006; Barberis 2013).”
BackgroundExploring Community-Oriented Approaches in Demand Side Management Projects in Europe
Mengolini, A., Flavia, G., & Julija, V. (2016) · Sustainability · doi:10.3390/su8121266 · Cited by 14
“Indeed, adding an injunctive norm that conveys the message that energy conservation is good for the community can substantially reduce the risk of the boomerang effect [39].”
BackgroundSegmenting and Profiling South African Households’ Electricity Conservation Behavior
Issock, P. B. I., Mpinganjira, M., & Duh, H. I. (2017) · Social Marketing Quarterly · doi:10.1177/1524500417712188 · Cited by 14
“Allcott (2011) found that knowledge of a neighbor’s low electricity consumption relative to one’s own helps one to think about reducing electricity consumption.”
BackgroundRebound effect across seasons: evidence from the replacement of air conditioners in Japan
Mizobuchi, K., & Takeuchi, K. (2018) · Environmental Economics and Policy Studies · doi:10.1007/s10018-018-0224-y · Cited by 14
He, G., Li, S., & Liang, Z. (2018) · Acta Psychologica Sinica · doi:10.3724/sp.j.1041.2018.00803 · Cited by 14
“…不限制选择自由, 不利用经济杠杆, 也不诉诸命令 和指导 , 而是通过适当改变人们面对的选择架构 (choice architecture), 使得人们的行为选择发生预 期变化(如提高参保率或降低垃圾食品摄入量)。 Thaler 和 Sunstein (2008)将这类行为干预方法称为 “助推” (nudge)。该类方法遵循“自由家长主义” (libertarian paternalism)理念, 避免了单纯的家长制 或自由主义的缺陷, 既非“胡萝卜”也非“大棒” (李 纾 , 2016), 因而也被称为社会治理的第三条道路 (何贵兵, 2016)。 从行为科学家的视角看,…”
Ashraf, S., Bicchieri, C., Delea, M. G., Das, U., Chauhan, K., Kuang, J., McNally, P., Shpenev, A., & Thulin, E. W. (2021) · JMIR Research Protocols · doi:10.2196/24407 · Cited by 12
“Our behavior change communication approach employs dynamic signaling (ie, dissemination of descriptive information regarding others’ actual or intended improved sanitation practices) and reflects a strategy that is novel to the sanitation sector but which has been effective in changing a variety of behaviors, such as…”
BackgroundRedactable Signatures to Control the Maximum Noise for Differential Privacy in the Smart Grid
Pöhls, H. C., & Karwe, M. (2014) · Lecture notes in computer science · doi:10.1007/978-3-319-10329-7_6 · Cited by 14
“This prevents to address customers individually and thus limits potential SG applications to provide energy efficiency recommendations [2].”
BackgroundCan Indifference Make the World Greener?Preprint
Egebark, J. H., & Ekstrrm, M. (2013) · SSRN Electronic Journal · doi:10.2139/ssrn.2324922 · Cited by 13
“Recent work has shown that simple social comparison can be used to decrease energy consumption (Nolan et al., 2008; Ayres et al., 2009; Allcott, 2011; Costa and Kahn, 2013) and water waste (Goldstein et al., 2008), and promote environmentally friendly agricultural practices (Chen et al., 2009).”
BackgroundCan Behavioral Interventions Be Too Salient? Evidence From Traffic Safety MessagesPreprint
Hall, J. D., & Madsen, J. M. (2020) · SSRN Electronic Journal · doi:10.2139/ssrn.3633014 · Cited by 14
Behavioral Economics, Consumption, and Environmental ProtectionPreprint
Sunstein, C. R. (2013) · SSRN Electronic Journal · doi:10.2139/ssrn.2296015 · Cited by 20
de Groot, J. I. M. (2022) · Frontiers in Sustainability · doi:10.3389/frsus.2022.968201 · Cited by 12
“Both injunctive and descriptive social norms have found to be predictive for a variety of pro-environmental consumer intentions and behaviors (e.g., Allcott, 2011; De Groot and Schuitema, 2012; Costa and Kahn, 2013; De Groot et al., 2013).”
BackgroundKumar, P., Caggiano, H., Cuite, C. L., Felder, F. A., & Shwom, R. (2023) · Behavioural Public Policy · doi:10.1017/bpp.2022.41 · Cited by 13
“However, scholars and policymakers are increasingly recognizing the role and importance of human behavioral factors as an intervention strategy for a sustainable transition (Allcott, 2011; Stern et al., 2016).”
BackgroundAgusdinata, D. B., Hanif, M. A., Shwom, R., Watkins, D., Floress, K. M., Cuite, C. L., & Halvorsen, K. E. (2024) · Journal of Environmental Management · doi:10.1016/j.jenvman.2023.119948 · Cited by 14
Strategic information avoidance, belief manipulation and the effectiveness of green nudges
D’Adda, G., Gao, Y., Golman, R., & Tavoni, M. (2024) · Ecological Economics · doi:10.1016/j.ecolecon.2024.108191 · Cited by 13
Is pro-environmental effort affected by information about others’ behavior?
Suri, D., Bongers, N., & Kube, S. (2024) · Ecological Economics · doi:10.1016/j.ecolecon.2024.108437 · Cited by 13
Is the ladder green? Social mobility and residents' low-carbon behavior
Zhu, P., & Lin, B. (2025) · Cities · doi:10.1016/j.cities.2025.105804 · Cited by 13
Tiberio, L., Kirchler, B., Massullo, C., Carrus, G., Haider, J., Kollmann, A., & Caffaro, F. (2025) · Energy Research & Social Science · doi:10.1016/j.erss.2025.103989 · Cited by 16
Le nudge en prévention… troisième voie ou sortie de route ?
Cambon, L. (2016) · Santé Publique · doi:10.3917/spub.161.0043 · Cited by 13
Baldini, M., & Trivella, A. (2017) · Energy Efficiency · doi:10.1007/s12053-017-9516-5 · Cited by 13
“They are constructed partly based on the results from Allcott (2011b), Ward et al. (2011), COOPER (2011) and partly by using data about income and annual expenditure in appliances by households from Statistics Denmark (2016).”
BackgroundFontana, M., Tavoni, M., & Vantini, S. (2019) · PLoS ONE · doi:10.1371/journal.pone.0218702 · Cited by 13
Adusumalli, S., Aragam, G. G., & Patel, M. S. (2020) · Current Treatment Options in Cardiovascular Medicine · doi:10.1007/s11936-020-00824-y · Cited by 14
Chen, S., Liu, J., & Hu, H. (2021) · Frontiers in Psychology · doi:10.3389/fpsyg.2021.659218 · Cited by 14
“For example, Allcott (2011) analyzed the role of social norms in residential energy conservation, and pointed out that intervention with social norm information significantly reduced residential electricity consumption.”
BackgroundNudge in the time of coronavirus: Compliance to behavioural messages during crisis
Hume, S., John, P. C., Sanders, M., & Stockdale, E. (2021) · Journal of Behavioral Public Administration · doi:10.30636/jbpa.42.238 · Cited by 32
Climate Change and Six Americas: What Can Behavior Analysts Do?
Meshes, E., Kamau, L. Z., Summers, M., & Hoppin, K. B. (2022) · Behavior and Social Issues · doi:10.1007/s42822-022-00107-0 · Cited by 12
“(2013) analyzed the use of home energy reports as feedback to consumers and found that energy use decreased on average by 2%; additional studies have found similar effects (Allcott, 2011; Costa & Kahn, 2013).”
BackgroundZhang, C. Y., Hemmeter, J., Kessler, J. B., et al. (2022) · Management Science · doi:10.1287/mnsc.2022.4645 · Cited by 13
Bunster, V., & Noguchi, M. (2015) · Sustainability · doi:10.3390/su7067973 · Cited by 13
An Assessment of the Energy-Efficiency Gap and Its Implications for Climate Change Policy
Gerarden, T., Newell, R. G., Stavins, R. N., & Stowe, R. C. (2015) · AgEcon Search (University of Minnesota, USA) · doi:10.22004/ag.econ.202116 · Cited by 14
Cognitive Structure of Collective Awareness Platforms
Bagnoli, F., Guazzini, A., Pacini, G., Stavrakakis, I., Kokolaki, E., & Theodorakopoulos, G. (2014) · IEEE International Conference on Self-Adaptive and Self-Organizing Systems Workshops (SASOW) · doi:10.1109/sasow.2014.38 · Cited by 13
“Social norms can motivate people to question their behaviour, if they discover it is not “normal” [3].”
BackgroundDriving in force: The influence of workplace peers on commuting decisions on U.S. military bases
Morrison, G. M., & Lawell, C. ‐. C. L. (2016) · Journal of Economic Behavior & Organization · doi:10.1016/j.jebo.2016.01.010 · Cited by 13
“…ramifications such as vehicle purchases (Grinblatt, Keloharju and Ikaheimo, 2008), the adoption of solar panels (Bollinger and Gillingham, 2012; Graziano and Gillingham, 2015), energy conservation (Allcott, 2011; Delmas and Lessem, 2014), and the adoption of green products (Kahn and Vaughn, 2009).”
BackgroundVisual Encoding of Dissimilarity Data via Topology-Preserving Map Deformation
Bouts, Q. W., Dwyer, T., Dykes, J. A., et al. (2015) · IEEE Transactions on Visualization and Computer Graphics · doi:10.1109/tvcg.2015.2500225 · Cited by 13
“In the behavioural context ‘local nudging’, in which energy consumers are compared to their neighbours, is also known to be particularly effective in reducing energy usage in high-consuming households [2].”
BackgroundPublic Policy and the Private Provision of Public Goods under Heterogeneous Preferences
Jacobsen, M. R., LaRiviere, J. S., & Price, M. (2017) · Journal of the Association of Environmental and Resource Economists · doi:10.1086/689834 · Cited by 13
Ganz, G., Neville, F., & Ward, C. L. (2017) · South African Journal of Science · doi:10.17159/sajs.2017/20160217 · Cited by 13
The role of psychology and social influences in energy efficiency adoption
Hanus, N., Wong‐Parodi, G., Small, M. J., & Grossmann, I. (2017) · Energy Efficiency · doi:10.1007/s12053-017-9568-6 · Cited by 14
When Do Campaign Effects Persist for Years? Evidence from a Natural Experiment
Jäger, K. (2019) · American Journal of Political Science · doi:10.1111/ajps.12488 · Cited by 13
Kinoshita, S. (2019) · Energy & Environment · doi:10.1177/0958305x19882386 · Cited by 13
“Allcott is also one of the famous studies that focuses on the social norms in energy savings.(11) Non-price intervention has the same impact as increased prices on the electricity savings of households by a field experiment.”
BackgroundHirai, K., Ohtake, F., Kudo, T., et al. (2020) · Transplantation · doi:10.1097/tp.0000000000003181 · Cited by 13
“Messages including social norms have been used earlier in a field experiment and shown the persuasive effect of altering behaviors, such as household’s energy use and tax payment.(7,8) The type of messages based on social norms has positive proof of behavior modification in many other fields, but the effect of this ty…”
MethodUsing big data for evaluating development outcomes: A systematic map
Rathinam, F., Khatua, S., Siddiqui, Z., Malik, M., Duggal, P., Watson, S., & Vollenweider, X. (2021) · Campbell Systematic Reviews · doi:10.1002/cl2.1149 · Cited by 12
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“Columns (2) and (3) show results estimated using the same model, separated by the rate plan in which the household was enrolled.”
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List, J. A., & Price, M. (2013) · National Bureau of Economic Research · doi:10.3386/w19289 · Cited by 12
Social Norms Theory and Development Economics
Eriksson, L. (2015) · World Bank, Washington, DC eBooks · doi:10.1596/1813-9450-7450 · Cited by 13
“As a result, the energy consumption crept back up after a few months, and went down again when households received the next letter, reminding them of the comparative information (Allcott 2011).”
BackgroundPeer Effects in Water Conservation: Evidence from Consumer Migration
Bollinger, B. K., Burkhardt, J., & Gillingham, K. T. (2018) · National Bureau of Economic Research · doi:10.3386/w24812 · Cited by 13
“Several papers explore how social norm-based messages aimed at energy conservation can reduce energy use (e.g., Allcott 2011; Allcott and Rogers 2014; Ayres et al. 2012; Costa and Kahn 2013; Dolan and Metcalfe 2015; Tsvetanov and Gillingham 2017) or how prosocial appeals influence energy use…”
Nudging Enforcers: How Norm Perceptions and Motives for Lying Shape SanctionsPreprint
Dimant, E., & Gesche, T. (2020) · SSRN Electronic Journal · doi:10.2139/ssrn.3664995 · Cited by 13
Social Norms and Energy Conservation Beyond the USPreprint
Andor, M., Gerster, A., Peters, J., et al. (2018) · SSRN Electronic Journal · doi:10.2139/ssrn.3234299 · Cited by 13
Paternalism and Energy Efficiency: An Overview
Allcott, H. (2014) · National Bureau of Economic Research · doi:10.3386/w20363 · Cited by 12
Self-citationWastensteiner, J., Nora Tobias, M., Haag, F., & Hopf, K. (2021) · doi:10.20378/irb-49912 · Cited by 17
“Future studies can, for example, use earlier studies from electricity (Allcott, 2011) and water consumption feedback (Tiefenbeck et al.”
MethodResultFraming and Social Information Nudges at Wikipedia
Traxler, C., & Linek, M. (2021) · OPUS 4 (Zuse Institute Berlin) · Cited by 13
Bruns, H., & Paunov, Y. (2021) · SSRN Electronic Journal · doi:10.2139/ssrn.3948978 · Cited by 13
Norm-Nudging: Harnessing Social Expectations for Behavior ChangePreprint
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Savari, M., Damaneh, H. E., & Damaneh, H. E. (2025) · Agricultural Water Management · doi:10.1016/j.agwat.2025.109752 · Cited by 12
Household energy use, energy efficiency, emissions, and behaviors
Alberini, A. (2017) · Energy Efficiency · doi:10.1007/s12053-017-9597-1 · Cited by 12
A critical review of natural gas emissions certification in the United States
Garg, S., Boz, D. E., Gilbert, B., et al. (2023) · Environmental Research Letters · doi:10.1088/1748-9326/acb4af · Cited by 12
“(Allcott 2011) suggests in the context of residential electricity consumption, specific negative incentives can create improved environmental outcomes.”
BackgroundPrivacy and the acceptance of centralized digital currencies in the U.S., India and Germany
Mehlkop, G., Neumann, R., & von Hermanni, H. (2023) · Scientific Reports · doi:10.1038/s41598-023-35905-y · Cited by 21
“The power of social norms on consumer choices has already been demonstrated in other research contexts 19,20 and we consider it an important antecedent for whether consumers will pick up new digital payment solutions.”
BackgroundSánchez, E. C., Plazas, F. L., Pérez, B. O., & Duarte, C. R. M. (2023) · Buildings · doi:10.3390/buildings13092213 · Cited by 11
The effect of future-time referencing on pro-environmental behavior
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Optimistic framing increases responsible investment of investment professionals
Daugaard, D., Kent, D., Servátka, M., & Zhang, L. (2024) · Scientific Reports · doi:10.1038/s41598-023-50965-w · Cited by 17
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Nicita, L., Casamassima, A., Santorsola, M., et al. (2024) · Energy Economics · doi:10.1016/j.eneco.2024.108080 · Cited by 11
Beyond Behavior Change: Household Retrofitting and ICT
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“Examples include the provision of data on the pro-environmental behavior of neighbors (Allcott 2011), the turnout of household members (Gerber et al.”
BackgroundKoh, Y. T. R. (2019) · International Journal of Water Resources Development · doi:10.1080/07900627.2019.1617114 · Cited by 12
“deemed ‘pro-social’ (Allcott, 2011). To this end, Cominola, Giuliani, Piga, Castelletti, and Rizzoli (2015) prescribe that water utilities can capitalize on people’s propensity to imitate the INTERNATIONAL JOURNAL OF WATER RESOURCES DEVELOPMENT 79”
BackgroundRevilla, B. P. (2020) · Energy Research & Social Science · doi:10.1016/j.erss.2020.101586 · Cited by 12
Fleming, P., Palm‐Forster, L. H., & Kelley, L. E. (2021) · Environmental Research Letters · doi:10.1088/1748-9326/abea33 · Cited by 12
“…experiments with 4 This is a phenomenon known as the ‘boomerang effect’ and has been noted in other contexts such as energy and water usage (Allcott 2011, Ferraro and Price 2013; inter alia). student participants and artefactual and framed field experiments with field professionals…”
BackgroundTrinh, K., Fung, A. S., & Straka, V. (2021) · Energy and Buildings · doi:10.1016/j.enbuild.2021.111288 · Cited by 12
Overview: Human decision making and development policy
Bank, W. (2014) · World Bank, Washington, DC eBooks · doi:10.1596/978-1-4648-0342-0_ov · Cited by 12
Ruiz, S. N., Day, J. K., Govertsen, K., & Kane, M. B. (2022) · Energy Research & Social Science · doi:10.1016/j.erss.2022.102719 · Cited by 12
Komatsu, H., Kubota, H., Tanaka, N., Ohashi, H., Griffin, M., Link, J., Geher, G., & Fisher, M. L. (2022) · PLoS ONE · doi:10.1371/journal.pone.0277969 · Cited by 12
“006 for Yourself can be regarded as natural, considering the values from a similar type of experiment [26] as well as RCT experiments on nudging information provision using social norms [42].”
BackgroundPolman, E., & Maglio, S. J. (2022) · Perspectives on Psychological Science · doi:10.1177/17456916221134575 · Cited by 11
Association between the COVID-19 Vaccine and Preventive Behaviors: Panel Data Analysis from Japan
Yamamura, E., Kohsaka, Y., Tsutsui, Y., & Ohtake, F. (2023) · Vaccines · doi:10.3390/vaccines11040810 · Cited by 12
Electricity saving behavior in student dorms: What message framing works?
Chongwilaikasaem, S., & Ayaragarnchanakul, E. (2023) · Journal of Behavioral and Experimental Economics · doi:10.1016/j.socec.2023.102088 · Cited by 11
Behavioral Science Tools to Strengthen Energy & Environmental Policy
Yoeli, E., Budescu, D. V., Carrico, A. R., Delmas, M. A., DeShazo, J. R., Ferraro, P. J., Forster, H. A., Kunreuther, H. C., Larrick, R. P., Lubell, M. N., et al. (2017) · Behavioral Science & Policy · doi:10.1177/237946151700300107 · Cited by 14
Nudging and the Principle of Proportionality
Schweizer, M. (2016) · Springer eBooks · doi:10.1007/978-3-319-29562-6_7 · Cited by 13
Kinship appeals and conservation social marketing
Qirko, H. N. (2017) · Biodiversity and Conservation · doi:10.1007/s10531-017-1297-9 · Cited by 11
“For example, labeling people as environmentally friendly, whether or not behaviors justify it, can promote environmentally friendly decision-making (Cornelissen et al. 2007; also Allcott 2011).”
BackgroundADDRESSING SOCIAL DILEMMAS WITH MASCOTS, INFORMATION, AND GRAPHICS
Butler, J. M., Fooks, J. R., Messer, K. D., et al. (2019) · Economic Inquiry · doi:10.1111/ecin.12783 · Cited by 12
Psychological Perspectives on Perceived Safety: Zero-Risk Bias, Feelings and Learned Carelessness
Raue, M., & Schneider, E. (2019) · Risk engineering · doi:10.1007/978-3-030-11456-5_5 · Cited by 14
Peers in the Field: The Role of Ability and Gender in Peer Effects among Agricultural Workers
Hill, A., & Burkhardt, J. (2021) · American Journal of Agricultural Economics · doi:10.1111/ajae.12192 · Cited by 12
The municipal council, my neighbors and me: Social environmental influences in the city
Elzafan, N. M., Romano, G. H. C., Rabinowitz, D., Soroker, S., & Carmi, N. (2021) · Journal of Environmental Management · doi:10.1016/j.jenvman.2021.112393 · Cited by 12
Attari, S. Z. (2021) · Current Opinion in Behavioral Sciences · doi:10.1016/j.cobeha.2021.04.008 · Cited by 11
Descriptive Norms and Guilt Aversion
Danilov, A., Khalmetski, K., & Sliwka, D. (2021) · Journal of Economic Behavior & Organization · doi:10.1016/j.jebo.2021.09.002 · Cited by 12
A fine is more than a price: Evidence from drought restrictions
Pratt, B. (2023) · Journal of Environmental Economics and Management · doi:10.1016/j.jeem.2023.102809 · Cited by 12
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Metadata
- Authors
- Allcott, H.
- Affiliations
- New York University (US)
- Corresponding author
- Allcott, Hunt
- Venue
- Journal of Public Economics
- Publisher
- Elsevier BV
- Published
- 2011-10
- Volume
- 95
- Issue
- 9-10
- Pages
- 1082-1095
- ISSN
- 0047-2727 (ISSN-L)
- OpenAlex
- W2139035425
- Cited by
- 2,802
- References
- 104
- Citations by year
- 2026: 225 · 2025: 209 · 2024: 194 · 2023: 208 · 2022: 226 · 2021: 257 · 2020: 225 · 2019: 240 · 2018: 199 · 2017: 171 · 2016: 165 · 2015: 161 · 2014: 147 · 2013: 94 · 2012: 55
- FWCI
- 263.94
- Type
- journal article
- Language
- en
- Open access
- closed
- Locations
- Journal of Public Economics (publishedVersion)
- Topics
- Physical Sciences › Environmental Science › Management, Monitoring, Policy and Law › Pro-Environmental Behavior and Attitudes
- Physical Sciences › Energy › Renewable Energy, Sustainability and the Environment › Energy, Environment, and Transportation Policies
- Social Sciences › Economics, Econometrics and Finance › Economics and Econometrics › Experimental Behavioral Economics Studies
- Keywords
- social norms, energy conservation, social comparison, residential electricity consumption, cost-effectiveness, injunctive norms, descriptive norms, treatment effect heterogeneity
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