You don’t need to prove yourself: A raciolinguistic perspective on Chinese international students’ academic language anxiety and ChatGPT use
Open accessAbstract
• ChatGPT exacerbates language anxiety among Chinese international students. • Further reliance occurs due to ChatGPT’s response mode and readers’ biased policing. • Raciolinguistic ideologies work with negative figures of personhood in AI policing. • Internalized academic English norms engage racialized students in self-policying. Adopting a raciolinguistic perspective, this study examines the Chinese international students’ anxiety on academic English writing under ChatGPT use and AI policing. As the baseline of language proficiency and a gatekeeper to academic achievement, academic English stands as the exclusive linguistic standard within academia. Chinese international students in the U.S. often experience different levels of anxiety in academic English writing as they are usually perceived as outsiders and linguistically deficient. In this context, AI language refining tools like ChatGPT have become a popular tool for such students to “standardize” their academic English writing. While these tools “improve” the quality of writing to some extent, they in fact exacerbate linguistic insecurity and language anxiety, because of their native-like response mode and readers’ biased policing. Through analysis of the interview data and human-AI interaction data provided by 18 Chinese international students in a U.S. graduate program, this study reveals the structural challenges faced by bilingual international students as they navigate academia in the era of ChatGPT. This paper contributes to a deeper understanding of the complexities surrounding requirement of academic English proficiency and racialized speakers’ experiences of being subjugated and engaging in self-policing in academic settings.
Integrity signals
Registry
Cites
Statistics
Claims the paper makes
Claims other papers make about this one
Each is checked against this paper’s own text: does it say what the citing paper says it does?
In English-dominant academic and corporate cultures where grammar is policed and accented English is disparaged, we have come to associate expertise with normative grammar, idiomatic syntax and vocabulary and slick delivery.
“In English-dominant academic and corporate cultures where grammar is policed and accented English is implicitly or explicitly disparaged (Zheng 2025), we have come to associate expertise with normative grammar, idiomatic syntax and vocabulary and slick delivery.”
From Large language models and the problem of rhetorical debt (2025) · cites this paper as Zheng 2025
Cites
(2009) · Cited by 21,330 · see citing works
Dwivedi, Y. K., Kshetri, N., Hughes, L., Slade, E. L., Jeyaraj, A., Kar, A. K., Baabdullah, A. M., Koohang, A., Raghavan, V., Ahuja, M., et al. (2023) · International Journal of Information Management · doi:10.1016/j.ijinfomgt.2023.102642 · Cited by 4,584 · see citing works
(2000) · Cited by 3,121 · see citing works
Chatting and cheating: Ensuring academic integrity in the era of ChatGPT
Cotton, D. R. E., Cotton, P. A., & Shipway, J. R. (2024) · Innovations in Education and Teaching International · doi:10.1080/14703297.2023.2190148 · Cited by 3,087 · see citing works
Chatting and Cheating. Ensuring academic integrity in the era of ChatGPT
Cotton, D., Cotton, P., & Shipway, J. R. (2023) · doi:10.35542/osf.io/mrz8h · Cited by 3,079 · see citing works
Undoing Appropriateness: Raciolinguistic Ideologies and Language Diversity in Education.
Flores, N., & Rosa, J. (2015) · Harvard Educational Review · doi:10.17763/0017-8055.85.2.149 · Cited by 2,829 · see citing works
CULTURAL THOUGHT PATTERNS IN INTER‐CULTURAL EDUCATION
Kaplan, R. B. (1966) · Language Learning · doi:10.1111/j.1467-1770.1966.tb00804.x · Cited by 2,069 · see citing works
Unsettling race and language: Toward a raciolinguistic perspective
Rosa, J., & Flores, N. (2017) · Language in Society · doi:10.1017/s0047404517000562 · Cited by 1,675 · see citing works
Voice, Footing, Enregisterment
Agha, A. (2005) · Journal of Linguistic Anthropology · doi:10.1525/jlin.2005.15.1.38 · Cited by 1,326 · see citing works
Interpretive themes in relational communication
Owen, W. F. (1984) · Quarterly Journal of Speech · doi:10.1080/00335638409383697 · Cited by 1,298 · see citing works
Language ideologies and the consequences of standardization
Milroy, J. (2001) · Journal of Sociolinguistics · doi:10.1111/1467-9481.00163 · Cited by 1,238 · see citing works
The Language of Schooling: A Functional Linguistics Perspective
Philpot, D. K., & Schleppegrell, M. J. (2005) · Canadian Journal of Education / Revue canadienne de l éducation · doi:10.2307/4126464 · Cited by 1,055 · see citing works
The CALLA Handbook: Implementing the Cognitive Academic Language Learning Approach
Dicker, C., Chamot, A. U., & O’Malley, J. M. (1994) · TESOL Quarterly · doi:10.2307/3587323 · Cited by 940 · see citing works
The Social Stratification of English in New York City
Gilbèrt, G. G., & Labov, W. (1969) · Language · doi:10.2307/411682 · Cited by 875 · see citing works
Holliday, A. (2006) · ELT Journal · doi:10.1093/elt/ccl030 · Cited by 848 · see citing works
Literacy and Language: Relationships during the Preschool Years
Snow, C. E. (1983) · Harvard Educational Review · doi:10.17763/haer.53.2.t6177w39817w2861 · Cited by 839 · see citing works
Dergaa, I., Chamari, K., Zmijewski, P., & Ben Saad, H. (2023) · Biology of Sport · doi:10.5114/biolsport.2023.125623 · Cited by 796 · see citing works
Lu, X. (2011) · TESOL Quarterly · doi:10.5054/tq.2011.240859 · Cited by 788 · see citing works
THE LOGIC OF NONSTANDARD ENGLISH
Labov, W. (1970) · Elsevier eBooks · doi:10.1016/b978-0-12-754850-0.50014-3 · Cited by 764 · see citing works
Contrastive Rhetoric: Cross-Cultural Aspects of Second-Language Writing
Lafford, B. A., & Connor, U. (1997) · Modern Language Journal · doi:10.2307/328793 · Cited by 734 · see citing works
Impact of ChatGPT on learners in a L2 writing practicum: an exploratory investigation
Yan, D. (2023) · Education and Information Technologies · doi:10.1007/s10639-023-11742-4 · Cited by 713 · see citing works
GPT detectors are biased against non-native English writers
Liang, W., Yuksekgonul, M., Mao, Y., Wu, E., & Zou, J. (2023) · Patterns · doi:10.1016/j.patter.2023.100779 · Cited by 673 · see citing works
Age and Rate of Acquisition of Second Language for Academic Purposes
Collier, V. P. (1987) · TESOL Quarterly · doi:10.2307/3586986 · Cited by 634 · see citing works
The Struggle to Teach English as an International Language
Rubdy, R. (2006) · ELT Journal · doi:10.1093/elt/ccl049 · Cited by 623 · see citing works
Academic Language and the Challenge of Reading for Learning About Science
Snow, C. E. (2010) · Science · doi:10.1126/science.1182597 · Cited by 584 · see citing works
Lee, O., Quinn, H. R., & Valdés, G. (2013) · Educational Researcher · doi:10.3102/0013189x13480524 · Cited by 559 · see citing works
Rosa, J. (2016) · Journal of Linguistic Anthropology · doi:10.1111/jola.12116 · Cited by 558 · see citing works
Rejecting abyssal thinking in the language and education of racialized bilinguals: A manifesto
Garcı́a, O., Flores, N., Seltzer, K., Wei, L., Otheguy, R., & Rosa, J. (2021) · Critical Inquiry in Language Studies · doi:10.1080/15427587.2021.1935957 · Cited by 550 · see citing works
ChatGPT and the rise of generative AI: Threat to academic integrity?
Eke, D. O. (2023) · Journal of Responsible Technology · doi:10.1016/j.jrt.2023.100060 · Cited by 532 · see citing works
Recombinant Selves in Mass Mediated Spacetime
Agha, A. (2007) · Language & Communication · doi:10.1016/j.langcom.2007.01.001 · Cited by 455 · see citing works
The Routledge Handbook of English as a Lingua Franca
Jenkins, J. 1., Baker, W., & Dewey, M. (2017) · Routledge eBooks · doi:10.4324/9781315717173 · Cited by 373 · see citing works
The Routledge Handbook of English for Academic Purposes
Hyland, K., & Thompson, P. (2016) · Routledge eBooks · doi:10.4324/9781315657455 · Cited by 337 · see citing works
Vicarious language: gender and linguistic modernity in Japan
(2007) · Choice Reviews Online · doi:10.5860/choice.44-4310 · Cited by 330 · see citing works
Flores, N. (2020) · Theory Into Practice · doi:10.1080/00405841.2019.1665411 · Cited by 320 · see citing works
International English: A guide to varieties of Standard English
Hill, K. C. (2004) · Language in Society · doi:10.1017/s0047404504254057 · Cited by 314 · see citing works
Raciolinguistics: How Language Shapes Our Ideas About Race
Leung, C. (2019) · TESOL Quarterly · doi:10.1002/tesq.554 · Cited by 313 · see citing works
Casal, J. E., & Kessler, M. (2023) · Research Methods in Applied Linguistics · doi:10.1016/j.rmal.2023.100068 · Cited by 261 · see citing works
Handbook of the Cultural Foundations of Learning
Nasir, N. S., Lee, C. D., Pea, R. D., & de Royston, M. M. (2020) · Routledge eBooks · doi:10.4324/9780203774977 · Cited by 224 · see citing works
Bakhtinian Perspectives on Language, Literacy, and Learning
(2004) · Cambridge University Press eBooks · doi:10.1017/cbo9780511755002 · Cited by 215 · see citing works
Syntactic complexity and writing quality in assessed first-year L2 writing
Casal, J. E., & Lee, J. J. (2019) · Journal of Second Language Writing · doi:10.1016/j.jslw.2019.03.005 · Cited by 190 · see citing works
Park, J. S. (2010) · Journal of Linguistic Anthropology · doi:10.1111/j.1548-1395.2010.01046.x · Cited by 180 · see citing works
Flores, N., & Rosa, J. (2022) · Language Learning · doi:10.1111/lang.12528 · Cited by 170 · see citing works
A Review of the Literature on Teaching Academic English to English Language Learners
Dicerbo, P. A., Anstrom, K., Baker, L. L., & Rivera, C. (2014) · Review of Educational Research · doi:10.3102/0034654314532695 · Cited by 153 · see citing works
Taguchi, N., Crawford, W. J., & Wetzel, D. Z. (2013) · TESOL Quarterly · doi:10.1002/tesq.91 · Cited by 144 · see citing works
Academic Writing and Publishing: A Practical Handbook
Hartley, J. R. (2008) · Cited by 136 · see citing works
Artificial intelligence in academic writing: a paradigm-shifting technological advance
Golan, R., Reddy, R., Muthigi, A., & Ramasamy, R. (2023) · Nature Reviews Urology · doi:10.1038/s41585-023-00746-x · Cited by 136 · see citing works
Academic language and the minoritization of U.S. bilingual Latinx students
Garcı́a, O., & Solorza, C. R. (2020) · Language and Education · doi:10.1080/09500782.2020.1825476 · Cited by 126 · see citing works
Cushing, I. R., & Snell, J. (2022) · Language in Society · doi:10.1017/s0047404522000094 · Cited by 122 · see citing works
Kubota, R., Corella, M., Lim, K. Y., & Sah, P. K. (2021) · Ethnicities · doi:10.1177/14687968211055808 · Cited by 114 · see citing works
Finding the connections between native-speakerism and authenticity
Lowe, R. J., & Pinner, R. S. (2016) · Applied Linguistics Review · doi:10.1515/applirev-2016-0002 · Cited by 112 · see citing works
English and the Discourses of Colonialism
Pennycook, A. (2002) · Routledge eBooks · doi:10.4324/9780203006344 · Cited by 111 · see citing works
Aukerman, M. S. (2007) · The Reading Teacher · doi:10.1598/rt.60.7.3 · Cited by 87 · see citing works
The Benefits, Risks and Regulation of Using ChatGPT in Chinese Academia: A Content Analysis
Hung, J., & Chen, J. (2023) · Social Sciences · doi:10.3390/socsci12070380 · Cited by 84 · see citing works
Bunch, G. C. (2014) · International Multilingual Research Journal · doi:10.1080/19313152.2014.852431 · Cited by 82 · see citing works
Challenges of Academic Listening in English: Reports by Chinese Students
Huang, J. (2005) · College student journal · Cited by 79 · see citing works
(En)countering native-speakerism: global perspectives
Swan, A. B., Aboshiha, P., & Holliday, A. (2015) · Cited by 73 · see citing works
Cushing, I. R. (2023) · British Journal of Sociology of Education · doi:10.1080/01425692.2023.2206006 · Cited by 73 · see citing works
Semrl, N., Feigl, S., Taumberger, N., Bracic, T., Fluhr, H., Blockeel, C., & Kollmann, M. (2023) · Human Reproduction · doi:10.1093/humrep/dead207 · Cited by 68 · see citing works
English as a medium of instruction and the discursive construction of elite identity
Jahan, I., & Hamid, M. O. (2019) · Journal of Sociolinguistics · doi:10.1111/josl.12360 · Cited by 67 · see citing works
Hu, G., & Sun, X. (2017) · System · doi:10.1016/j.system.2017.03.015 · Cited by 59 · see citing works
Zhang‐Wu, Q. (2018) · Journal of International Students · doi:10.32674/jis.v8i2.139 · Cited by 55 · see citing works
Standard English: The Only Target for Nonnative Speakers of English?
Goldstein, L. M. (1987) · TESOL Quarterly · doi:10.2307/3586496 · Cited by 54 · see citing works
Figures of personhood: time, space, and affect as heuristics for metapragmatic analysis
Park, J. S. (2021) · International Journal of the Sociology of Language · doi:10.1515/ijsl-2020-0096 · Cited by 53 · see citing works
Preece, S. (2019) · Journal of Multilingual and Multicultural Development · doi:10.1080/01434632.2018.1543692 · Cited by 50 · see citing works
The Teaching of Academic Language to Minority Second Language Learners
Valdés, G. (2004) · Cambridge University Press eBooks · doi:10.1017/cbo9780511755002.004 · Cited by 47 · see citing works
Li, Y.-Y. (2012) · Science and Engineering Ethics · doi:10.1007/s11948-011-9342-7 · Cited by 45 · see citing works
The Ability of Indonesian EFL Learners in Writing Academic Papers
Husin, M., & Nurbayani, E. (2017) · DINAMIKA ILMU · doi:10.21093/di.v17i2.725 · Cited by 45 · see citing works
(1963) · Anthropology News · doi:10.1111/an.1963.4.5.7.2 · Cited by 45 · see citing works
THE HANDBOOK OF APPLIED LINGUISTICS
Lafford, B. A. (2005) · Studies in Second Language Acquisition · doi:10.1017/s0272263105390206 · Cited by 44 · see citing works
Participant–Observer Differences in Speech Evaluation
Street, R. L. (1985) · Journal of Language and Social Psychology · doi:10.1177/0261927x8500400204 · Cited by 37 · see citing works
Agency and feedback-seeking: academic English socialization of L2 students in Hong Kong
Sung, C. C. M. (2022) · Language and Education · doi:10.1080/09500782.2022.2085048 · Cited by 37 · see citing works
Writing Clearly: An Editing Guide
Kozyrev, J. R., Lane, J., & Lange, E. (1995) · TESOL Quarterly · doi:10.2307/3588183 · Cited by 35 · see citing works
“Suddenly Faced with a Chinese Village”
Lo, A. (2016) · Oxford University Press eBooks · doi:10.1093/acprof:oso/9780190625696.003.0006 · Cited by 31 · see citing works
Language, Literacy and Diversity
(2015) · Routledge eBooks · doi:10.4324/9780203576953 · Cited by 30 · see citing works
Sung, C. C. M. (2020) · Lingua · doi:10.1016/j.lingua.2020.102919 · Cited by 30 · see citing works
Power, Language, and Bilingual Learners
Flores, N., & García, E. S. (2020) · Routledge eBooks · doi:10.4324/9780203774977-12 · Cited by 24 · see citing works
Chaka, C. (2021) · Journal of Contemporary Issues in Education · doi:10.20355/jcie29465 · Cited by 23 · see citing works
English Literacy in the U.S.: National Policies, Personal Consequences
McKay, S. L., & Weinstein‐Shr, G. (1993) · TESOL Quarterly · doi:10.2307/3587473 · Cited by 22 · see citing works
University English for Academic Purposes in China
Rao, X. (2018) · Springer eBooks · doi:10.1007/978-981-13-0647-1 · Cited by 17 · see citing works
Written academic English as a lingua franca
Horner, B. (2017) · Routledge eBooks · doi:10.4324/9781315717173-34 · Cited by 14 · see citing works
Hayashi, K., & SATO, T. B. (2024) · WorldCALL official conference proceedings · doi:10.22492/issn.2759-1182.2023.23 · Cited by 12 · see citing works
Park, J. S. (2014) · Journal of Asian Pacific Communication · doi:10.1075/japc.24.2.05par · Cited by 11 · see citing works
A Primer on Plagiarism: Resources for Educators in China
Gray, G. C., Borkenhagen, L. K., Sung, N. S., & Tang, S. (2019) · Change The Magazine of Higher Learning · doi:10.1080/00091383.2019.1569974 · Cited by 9 · see citing works
McConnochie, M. (2022) · Journal of Latinos and Education · doi:10.1080/15348431.2022.2114906 · Cited by 8 · see citing works
Yang, X., & duan, Y. (2016) · Florida International University Digital Commons (Florida International University) · Cited by 5 · see citing works
Hayashi, K., & SATO, T. B. (2024) · WorldCALL official conference proceedings · doi:10.22492/issn.2759-1182.2024.23 · Cited by 4 · see citing works
Dennis R. Preston (ed.), Needed research in American dialects
Schilling‐Estes, N. (2006) · Language in Society · doi:10.1017/s0047404506290201 · Cited by 1 · see citing works
Flagged first, then by citations
Cited by
Sorted by citations
Large language models and the problem of rhetorical debt
MacArthur, M. (2025) · AI & SOCIETY · doi:10.1007/s00146-025-02403-w · Cited by 8 · see citing works
“In English-dominant academic and corporate cultures where grammar is policed and accented English is implicitly or explicitly disparaged (Zheng 2025), we have come to associate expertise with normative grammar, idiomatic syntax and vocabulary and slick delivery.”
MacArthur, M. J., Minnillo, S., Sperber, L., Whithaus, C., & Stillman, N. (2025) · Frontiers in Communication · doi:10.3389/fcomm.2025.1615752 · Cited by 8 · see citing works
Vu, C. B., Cummings, J. J., & Park, D. Y. (2026) · Computers and Education Open · doi:10.1016/j.caeo.2026.100335 · Cited by 9 · see citing works
Hong, L. (2026) · Linguistics and Education · doi:10.1016/j.linged.2026.101508 · Cited by 3 · see citing works
Weninger, C. (2026) · Language Teaching Research · doi:10.1177/13621688261459669 · Cited by 1 · see citing works
Race, Technology, and Trust: Examining the Cheating Discourse Among Black and Asian AI Users
Hall, A., & Kong, Y. (2025) · IEEE International Professional Communication Conference (ProComm) · doi:10.1109/procomm64814.2025.00052
Katongtung, T., Tippayawong, N., Tippayawong, K. Y., & Woschank, M. (2025) · Lecture notes in networks and systems · doi:10.1007/978-3-032-03722-0_8
Haliday, H. (2026) · Revue de psychothérapie psychanalytique de groupe · doi:10.3917/rppg.086.0013
Language and time in education: thinking in the age of generative artificial intelligence
Cui, S. (. (2026) · AI & Society · doi:10.1007/s00146-026-03148-w
Yan, J., Wu, J., & Wei, X. (2026) · Advances in computational intelligence and robotics book series · doi:10.4018/979-8-3373-6571-8.ch004
Introduction: Artificial Intelligence in Teams
Paletz, S. B. F., & Dubrow, S. R. (2026) · Emerald Group Publishing Limited eBooks · doi:10.1108/s1534-085620260000021002
Paletz, S. B. F., & Dubrow, S. R. (2026) · Emerald Group Publishing Limited eBooks · doi:10.1108/s1534-085620260000021032
Wang, T., Rowsell, J., & Pei, L. (2026) · Education Sciences · doi:10.3390/educsci16071092 · Cited by 2 · see citing works
Xiao, G., Yu, J., & Randolph, L. J. (2026) · Linguistics and Education · doi:10.1016/j.linged.2026.101569
Zheng, K. (2026) · Journal of Sociolinguistics · doi:10.1111/josl.70063
Self-citationThe internationally mobile student Odyssey in an AI-driven world: The ecology of agency
Kang, H. (2026) · Learning Culture and Social Interaction · doi:10.1016/j.lcsi.2026.101077
- Authors
- Zheng, K.
- ORCID
- Zheng, Kewen
- Venue
- Linguistics and Education
- Publisher
- Elsevier BV
- Published
- 2025-04
- Volume
- 86
- Pages
- 101406
- ISSN
- 0898-5898 (ISSN-L)
- OpenAlex
- W4408056799
- Cited by
- 16
- References
- 88
- Citations by year
- 2026: 12 · 2025: 4
- FWCI
- 53.80
- Type
- journal article
- Language
- en
- Open access
- hybrid
- doi.org
- Licence
- Locations
- Linguistics and Education (publishedVersion, cc-by-nc-nd)
- Funders
- National University of Singapore
- Topics
- Social Sciences › Linguistics and Language › Multilingual Education and Policy
- Social Sciences › Arts and Humanities › Language and Linguistics › EFL/ESL Teaching and Learning
- Social Sciences › Arts and Humanities › Literature and Literary Theory › Discourse Analysis in Language Studies
- Keywords
- raciolinguistics, Chinese international students, ChatGPT, English academic writing, linguistic insecurity, self-policing, norm internalization, racialized students, bilingual students, human-AI interaction
About these checks
Registry, retraction, Cites and statistics results are computed, not judged, with one exception: a printed reference that no index lists is read once by a model before it counts as a citation error. Claims are extracted by a model and kept only when their quote appears verbatim in the text; each cited source is then checked, with a model’s help, for whether it says what the claim relies on. Those verdicts can be wrong — read the claim’s quote and the cited source before relying on one.
Statistics and arithmetic are recomputed, not judged.
Confidence bands are shown only for fields calibrated on our annotated test set. None is calibrated yet, so no band is shown.
What counts as a claim ›How we measure confidence ›How we check this ›
Are you an author, or do you see a problem with this page? Request a review
