Cited by 299Memory and Neural MechanismsNeural and Behavioral Psychology StudiesAnxiety, Depression, Psychometrics, Treatment, Cognitive Processes

The DOI matches its Crossref record; 70 of the 70 references it cites were found in a registry or an index; none of the 86 sources its claims cite is checked for support yet.

Phasic and sustained fear in humans elicits distinct patterns of brain activity

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Alvarez, Ruben P., Chen, Gang, Bodurka, Jerzy, Kaplan, Raphael, Grillon, Christian·2011·NeuroImage

DOI 10.1016/j.neuroimage.2010.11.057PMC PMC3100535

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Abstract

Aversive events are typically more debilitating when they occur unpredictably than predictably. Studies in humans and animals indicate that predictable and unpredictable aversive events can induce phasic and sustained fear, respectively. Research in rodents suggests that anatomically related but distinct neural circuits may mediate phasic and sustained fear. We explored this issue in humans by examining threat predictability in three virtual reality contexts, one in which electric shocks were predictably signaled by a cue, a second in which shocks occurred unpredictably but never paired with a cue, and a third in which no shocks were delivered. Evidence of threat-induced phasic and sustained fear was presented using fear ratings and skin conductance. Utilizing recent advances in functional magnetic resonance imaging (fMRI), we were able to conduct whole-brain fMRI at relatively high spatial resolution and still have enough sensitivity to detect transient and sustained signal changes in the basal forebrain. We found that both predictable and unpredictable threat evoked transient activity in the dorsal amygdala, but that only unpredictable threat produced sustained activity in a forebrain region corresponding to the bed nucleus of the stria terminalis complex. Consistent with animal models hypothesizing a role for the cortex in generating sustained fear, sustained signal increases to unpredictable threat were also found in anterior insula and a frontoparietal cortical network associated with hypervigilance. In addition, unpredictable threat led to transient activity in the ventral amygdala–hippocampal area and pregenual anterior cingulate cortex, as well as transient activation and subsequent deactivation of subgenual anterior cingulate cortex, limbic structures that have been implicated in the regulation of emotional behavior and stress responses. In line with basic findings in rodents, these results provide evidence that phasic and sustained fear in humans may manifest similar signs of distress, but appear to be associated with different patterns of neural activity in the human basal forebrain.

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Crossref · 10.1016/j.neuroimage.2010.11.057

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Probably not a substantial claim. 47

None of the sources cited for this claim have been checked yet.
In the paper
“Rodent data suggest that phasic fear responses rely on the central nucleus of the amygdala (CeA), which in humans is located in the dorsal part of the amygdala (Amunts et al., 2005)”
§ Phasic and sustained fear in humans elicits distinct patterns of brain activity > Introduction
What the sources say
- Not checked yetcites Walker and Davis, 2008 source
- Not checked yetcites Amunts et al., 2005 source
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In the paper
“a brief, discrete cue that predictably signals an imminent threat evokes a rapid apprehensive state (phasic fear) that diminishes quickly once the threat is terminated”
§ Phasic and sustained fear in humans elicits distinct patterns of brain activity > Introduction
What the sources say
- Not checked yetcites Fanselow, 1994 source
- Not checked yetcites Grillon, 2008 source
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It may state two separate claims as one.
None of the sources cited for this claim have been checked yet.
In the paper
“animal models of sustained fear posit that cortical inputs from the insula may also underlie sustained fear, possibly mediating cognitive components of anxious apprehension (Davis et al., 2010b).”
§ Phasic and sustained fear in humans elicits distinct patterns of brain activity > Introduction
What the sources say
- Not checked yetcites Davis et al., 2010b
- Not checked yetcites McDonald et al., 1999 source
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None of the sources cited for this claim have been checked yet.
In the paper
“neuroimaging studies in humans have likewise implicated the amygdala in fear acquisition and extinction (Buchel et al., 1998; LaBar et al., 1998; Milad et al., 2007; Phelps et al., 2004)”
§ Phasic and sustained fear in humans elicits distinct patterns of brain activity > Introduction
What the sources say
- Not checked yetcites Buchel et al., 1998 source
- Not checked yetcites LaBar et al., 1998 source
- Not checked yetcites Milad et al., 2007 source
Strength:plain· not yet calibratedCausal:correlational· not yet calibrated
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Probably not a substantial claim. The paper’s conclusions may not depend on it.
In the paper
“However, Somerville et al. (2010) recently examined the role of the BNST in anxious-related vigilance.”
§ Phasic and sustained fear in humans elicits distinct patterns of brain activity > Introduction
What the sources say
- Not checked yetcites Somerville et al. (2010) source
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Probably not a substantial claim.
In the paper
“Rodent data suggest that highly related but partially distinct functional neuroanatomical networks may underlie phasic and sustained fear (Davis et al., 2010b).”
§ Phasic and sustained fear in humans elicits distinct patterns of brain activity > Introduction
What the sources say
- Not checked yetcites Davis et al., 2010b
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Probably not a substantial claim.
None of the sources cited for this claim have been checked yet.
In the paper
“We tested these predictions using a well-validated instructed threat procedure (Davis et al., 2010b; Grillon et al., 2004), and neuroimaging methods that assured good signal detection of transient cue- and context-related responses, as well as sustained context-related responses in the basal forebrain.”
§ Phasic and sustained fear in humans elicits distinct patterns of brain activity > Introduction
What the sources say
- Not checked yetcites Davis et al., 2010b
- Not checked yetcites Grillon et al., 2004 source
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In the paper
“sustained fear responses are dependent on the bed nucleus of the stria terminalis (BNST), which is located in the ventromedial basal forebrain and receives input from the CeA and the more ventrally located basolateral amygdala complex (BLC) (Walker and Davis, 2008)”
§ Phasic and sustained fear in humans elicits distinct patterns of brain activity > Introduction
What the sources say
- Not checked yetcites Walker and Davis, 2008 source
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It may state two separate claims as one.
In the paper
“Hasler et al. (2007) found that a visual threat cue increased cerebral blood flow in the left amygdala relative to a comparable safe cue.”
§ Phasic and sustained fear in humans elicits distinct patterns of brain activity > Introduction
What the sources say
- Not checked yetcites Hasler et al. (2007) source
Strength:plain· not yet calibratedCausal:direct· not yet calibrated
Tests✓ Asserted: passes✓ Checkable: passes✗ Load-bearing: fails✓ Based: passes
Probably not a substantial claim. The paper’s conclusions may not depend on it.
In the paper
“Because the CeA and BNST project to the same neural mediators of fear symptoms, each of these components of the extended amygdala are capable of generating defensive responses (Davis and Whalen, 2001).”
§ Phasic and sustained fear in humans elicits distinct patterns of brain activity > Introduction
What the sources say
- Not checked yetcites Davis and Whalen, 2001 source
Load-bearingStrength:plain· not yet calibratedCausal:direct· not yet calibrated
Tests✓ Asserted: passes✓ Checkable: passes✓ Load-bearing: passes✓ Based: passes
Probably not a substantial claim. It may state two separate claims as one.
In the paper
“an area that also has strong projections to medial prefrontal cortical regions associated with the regulation of emotions and visceral reactions (Price and Drevets, 2010).”
§ Phasic and sustained fear in humans elicits distinct patterns of brain activity > Introduction
What the sources say
- Not checked yetcites Price and Drevets, 2010 source
Strength:boosted· not yet calibratedCausal:correlational· not yet calibrated
Tests✓ Asserted: passes✓ Checkable: passes✗ Load-bearing: fails✓ Based: passes
Probably not a substantial claim. The paper’s conclusions may not depend on it.
In the paper
“Though no shocks were ever administered, the threat cue evoked enhanced arousal and fear as indexed by skin conductance, and relative to the safe cue, produced a rapid and short-lasting activation in left dorsal amygdala.”
§ Phasic and sustained fear in humans elicits distinct patterns of brain activity > Introduction
What the sources say
- Not checked yetcites Phelps et al. (2001) source
Load-bearingStrength:plain· not yet calibratedCausal:direct· not yet calibrated
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It may state two separate claims as one.
In the paper
“compared to generic cost functionals, provides superior spatial alignment between T2*- and T1-weighted images in brain structures near the ventricles (Saad et al., 2009).”
§ Phasic and sustained fear in humans elicits distinct patterns of brain activity > Materials and methods > Experimental procedures
What the sources say
- Not checked yetcites Saad et al., 2009 source
Strength:plain· not yet calibratedCausal:direct· not yet calibrated
Tests✓ Asserted: passes✓ Checkable: passes✗ Load-bearing: fails✓ Based: passes
Probably not a substantial claim. The paper’s conclusions may not depend on it.
None of the sources cited for this claim have been checked yet.
In the paper
“This allowed us to conduct whole-brain fMRI at roughly 4 times higher spatial resolution (1.7 × 1.7 × 3.5 mm3) and still have enough sensitivity to detect BOLD signal changes (Bodurka et al., 2007).”
§ Phasic and sustained fear in humans elicits distinct patterns of brain activity > Introduction
What the sources say
- Not checked yetcites Bodurka et al., 2004 source
- Not checked yetcites Bodurka et al., 2007 source
Load-bearingStrength:plain· not yet calibratedCausal:direct· not yet calibrated
Tests✓ Asserted: passes✓ Checkable: passes✓ Load-bearing: passes✓ Based: passes
It may state two separate claims as one.
In the paper
“Because animal models of sustained fear hypothesize that a part of the CeA different from that involved in phasic fear may be transiently involved in initiating sustained fear (Davis et al., 2010b), we tested for a transient fear response to unpredictable threat in bilateral dorsal amygdala.”
§ Phasic and sustained fear in humans elicits distinct patterns of brain activity > Results
What the sources say
- Not checked yetcites Davis et al., 2010b
Load-bearingStrength:hedged· not yet calibratedCausal:conditional· not yet calibrated
Tests✗ Asserted: fails✓ Checkable: passes✓ Load-bearing: passes✓ Based: passes
Probably not a substantial claim. The authors may not put it forward as true.
In the paper
“A log transformation (log [1 + SCR]) was performed to normalize the distribution, and the magnitudes were range corrected (SCR/SCRmax) for each subject to attain statistical normality and to reduce error variance (Lykken and Venables, 1971).”
§ Phasic and sustained fear in humans elicits distinct patterns of brain activity > Materials and methods > Experimental procedures
What the sources say
- Not checked yetcites Lykken and Venables, 1971
Strength:plain· not yet calibratedCausal:direct· not yet calibrated
Tests✓ Asserted: passes✓ Checkable: passes✗ Load-bearing: fails✓ Based: passes
Probably not a substantial claim. The paper’s conclusions may not depend on it. It may state two separate claims as one.
In the paper
“statistical conclusions concerning the extended amygdala were based on small volume correction (SVC) for multiple tests (Worsley et al., 1996).”
§ Phasic and sustained fear in humans elicits distinct patterns of brain activity > Materials and methods > Data analysis
What the sources say
- Not checked yetcites Worsley et al., 1996 source
Load-bearingStrength:plain· not yet calibrated
Tests✓ Asserted: passes✓ Checkable: passes✓ Load-bearing: passes✓ Based: passes
Probably not a substantial claim.
In the paper
“Therefore, the absence of cues in Pcxt may have signaled relative safety; however, unlike Ncxt, Pcxt was not a safe context in an absolute sense because Pcxt was associated with cue-related shock, much like the context in background contextual conditioning studies (Calandreau et al., 2005).”
§ Phasic and sustained fear in humans elicits distinct patterns of brain activity > Materials and methods > Experimental procedures
What the sources say
- Not checked yetcites Calandreau et al., 2005 source
Load-bearingStrength:hedged· not yet calibratedCausal:correlational· not yet calibrated
Tests✓ Asserted: passes✓ Checkable: passes✓ Load-bearing: passes✓ Based: passes
It may state two separate claims as one.
In the paper
“Imaging at a higher spatial resolution can decrease partial volume effects but can come at the cost of a reduced MRI signal-to-noise ratio (SNR) (Edelstein et al., 1986).”
§ Phasic and sustained fear in humans elicits distinct patterns of brain activity > Introduction
What the sources say
- Not checked yetcites Edelstein et al., 1986 source
Load-bearingStrength:plain· not yet calibratedCausal:direct· not yet calibrated
Tests✓ Asserted: passes✓ Checkable: passes✓ Load-bearing: passes✓ Based: passes
It may state two separate claims as one.
None of the sources cited for this claim have been checked yet.
In the paper
“Previous studies of instructed fear using simple threat cues (e.g., colored squares) have associated phasic fear responses with a left hemisphere bias (Phelps et al., 2001; Funayama et al., 2001; Hasler et al., 2007).”
§ Phasic and sustained fear in humans elicits distinct patterns of brain activity > Results
What the sources say
- Not checked yetcites Phelps et al., 2001 source
- Not checked yetcites Funayama et al., 2001 source
- Not checked yetcites Hasler et al., 2007 source
Strength:plain· not yet calibratedCausal:correlational· not yet calibrated
Tests✓ Asserted: passes✓ Checkable: passes✗ Load-bearing: fails✓ Based: passes
Probably not a substantial claim. The paper’s conclusions may not depend on it.
In the paper
“Previous research in our laboratory has shown that similarly constructed VR stimuli are effective for studying context manipulations in the MRI environment (Alvarez et al., 2008).”
§ Phasic and sustained fear in humans elicits distinct patterns of brain activity > Materials and methods > Experimental procedures
What the sources say
- Not checked yetcites Alvarez et al., 2008 source
Strength:plain· not yet calibratedCausal:direct· not yet calibrated
Tests✓ Asserted: passes✓ Checkable: passes✗ Load-bearing: fails✓ Based: passes
Probably not a substantial claim. The paper’s conclusions may not depend on it.
None of the sources cited for this claim have been checked yet.
In the paper
“It is also consistent with previous studies showing a rapid reduction in amygdala activation over time in fear conditioning (Buchel et al., 1998; LaBar et al., 1998) and threat of shock (Phelps et al., 2001).”
§ Phasic and sustained fear in humans elicits distinct patterns of brain activity > Discussion > Predictable and unpredictable threat are associated with different patterns of brain activation
What the sources say
- Not checked yetcites Buchel et al., 1998 source
- Not checked yetcites LaBar et al., 1998 source
- Not checked yetcites Phelps et al., 2001 source
Load-bearingStrength:plain· not yet calibratedCausal:direct· not yet calibrated
Tests✓ Asserted: passes✓ Checkable: passes✓ Load-bearing: passes✓ Based: passes
Probably not a substantial claim.
None of the sources cited for this claim have been checked yet.
In the paper
“This result is consistent with studies in rodents, primates, and humans that demonstrate a role for the CeA in mediating behavioral and physiological responses evoked by conditioned and unconditioned stimuli including contexts (Davis and Whalen, 2001; Kalin et al., 2004; LeDoux, 2000).”
§ Phasic and sustained fear in humans elicits distinct patterns of brain activity > Discussion > Predictable and unpredictable threat are associated with different patterns of brain activation
What the sources say
- Not checked yetcites Davis and Whalen, 2001 source
- Not checked yetcites Kalin et al., 2004 source
- Not checked yetcites LeDoux, 2000 source
Load-bearingStrength:boosted· not yet calibratedCausal:direct· not yet calibrated
Tests✓ Asserted: passes✓ Checkable: passes✓ Load-bearing: passes✓ Based: passes
Probably not a substantial claim.
None of the sources cited for this claim have been checked yet.
In the paper
“This conjecture is supported by research indicating that the BLC is well positioned to receive incoming sensory information concerning threats in the environment, and to convey this information to output areas including the CeA and BNST (Amaral et al., 1992; Dong et al., 2001).”
§ Phasic and sustained fear in humans elicits distinct patterns of brain activity > Discussion > Predictable and unpredictable threat are associated with different patterns of brain activation
What the sources say
- Not checked yetcites Amaral et al., 1992
- Not checked yetcites Dong et al., 2001 source
Load-bearingStrength:hedged· not yet calibratedCausal:direct· not yet calibrated
Tests✓ Asserted: passes✓ Checkable: passes✓ Load-bearing: passes✓ Based: passes
It may state two separate claims as one.
In the paper
“The posterior cingulate and precuneus are part of a cortical midline network associated with self-referential processing in the spatial domain (Northoff et al., 2006)”
§ Phasic and sustained fear in humans elicits distinct patterns of brain activity > Discussion > Predictable and unpredictable threat are associated with different patterns of brain activation
What the sources say
- Not checked yetcites Northoff et al., 2006 source
Load-bearingStrength:plain· not yet calibratedCausal:correlational· not yet calibrated
Tests✓ Asserted: passes✓ Checkable: passes✓ Load-bearing: passes✓ Based: passes
Probably not a substantial claim.
In the paper
“It has been suggested that anterior insula might mediate cognitive aspects of worry (Walker and Davis, 2008).”
§ Phasic and sustained fear in humans elicits distinct patterns of brain activity > Discussion > Predictable and unpredictable threat are associated with different patterns of brain activation
What the sources say
- Not checked yetcites Walker and Davis, 2008 source
Strength:hedged· not yet calibratedCausal:conditional· not yet calibrated
Tests✓ Asserted: passes✓ Checkable: passes✗ Load-bearing: fails✓ Based: passes
Probably not a substantial claim. The paper’s conclusions may not depend on it.
In the paper
“According to this model, cortical and subcortical input converge on the basolateral amygdala and lateral CeA, which in turn project to the lateral BNST and trigger a cascade of neurochemical release, resulting in a relatively long-lasting apprehensive state.”
§ Phasic and sustained fear in humans elicits distinct patterns of brain activity > Discussion > Predictable and unpredictable threat are associated with different patterns of brain activation
What the sources say
- Not checked yetcites Davis et al., 2010b
Load-bearingStrength:plain· not yet calibratedCausal:direct· not yet calibrated
Tests✓ Asserted: passes✓ Checkable: passes✓ Load-bearing: passes✓ Based: passes
Probably not a substantial claim. It may state two separate claims as one.
In the paper
“The supracapsular BNST is a small basal forebrain structure that is relatively well developed in humans (Strenge et al., 1977).”
§ Phasic and sustained fear in humans elicits distinct patterns of brain activity > Discussion > Predictable and unpredictable threat are associated with different patterns of brain activation
What the sources say
- Not checked yetcites Strenge et al., 1977
Strength:plain· not yet calibrated
Tests✓ Asserted: passes✓ Checkable: passes✗ Load-bearing: fails✓ Based: passes
Probably not a substantial claim. The paper’s conclusions may not depend on it. It may state two separate claims as one.
In the paper
“A comparable area of the BNST has been associated with hypervigilant threat monitoring (Somerville et al., 2010).”
§ Phasic and sustained fear in humans elicits distinct patterns of brain activity > Discussion > Predictable and unpredictable threat are associated with different patterns of brain activation
What the sources say
- Not checked yetcites Somerville et al., 2010 source
Strength:plain· not yet calibratedCausal:correlational· not yet calibrated
Tests✓ Asserted: passes✓ Checkable: passes✗ Load-bearing: fails✓ Based: passes
Probably not a substantial claim. The paper’s conclusions may not depend on it.
In the paper
“Because enhanced activity in the BNST occurred during an anticipatory period of 10–28 s, Straube et al. (2007) interpreted their finding as evidence for BNST involvement in anticipatory anxiety.”
§ Phasic and sustained fear in humans elicits distinct patterns of brain activity > Discussion > Predictable and unpredictable threat are associated with different patterns of brain activation
What the sources say
- Not checked yetcites Straube et al. (2007) source
Strength:plain· not yet calibratedCausal:correlational· not yet calibrated
Tests✓ Asserted: passes✓ Checkable: passes✗ Load-bearing: fails✓ Based: passes
Probably not a substantial claim. The paper’s conclusions may not depend on it.
In the paper
“This proposal is compatible with a recently described neural model of sustained fear (Davis et al., 2010b).”
§ Phasic and sustained fear in humans elicits distinct patterns of brain activity > Discussion > Predictable and unpredictable threat are associated with different patterns of brain activation
What the sources say
- Not checked yetcites Davis et al., 2010b
Strength:plain· not yet calibrated
Tests✓ Asserted: passes✓ Checkable: passes✗ Load-bearing: fails✓ Based: passes
Probably not a substantial claim. The paper’s conclusions may not depend on it.
In the paper
“The supracapsular and lateral BNST share a similar cellular and neurochemical makeup, and the supracapsular BNST merges into and shares afferent and efferent pathways with the lateral BNST (Shammah-Lagnado et al., 2000)”
§ Phasic and sustained fear in humans elicits distinct patterns of brain activity > Discussion > Predictable and unpredictable threat are associated with different patterns of brain activation
What the sources say
- Not checked yetcites Shammah-Lagnado et al., 2000 source
Load-bearingStrength:plain· not yet calibratedCausal:correlational· not yet calibrated
Tests✓ Asserted: passes✓ Checkable: passes✓ Load-bearing: passes✓ Based: passes
It may state two separate claims as one.
In the paper
“Conscious appraisal processes have been hypothesized to involve a neural circuit including the dmPFC/dACC (Mechias et al., 2010).”
§ Phasic and sustained fear in humans elicits distinct patterns of brain activity > Discussion > Predictable and unpredictable threat are associated with different patterns of brain activation
What the sources say
- Not checked yetcites Mechias et al., 2010 source
Load-bearingStrength:hedged· not yet calibratedCausal:correlational· not yet calibrated
Tests✓ Asserted: passes✓ Checkable: passes✓ Load-bearing: passes✓ Based: passes
Probably not a substantial claim.
In the paper
“Subgenual anterior cingulate cortex (sACC) is central to the medial prefrontal network that has been associated with mood and anxiety dysregulation, and has been implicated in the regulation of visceral responses during stress and anxiety (Price and Drevets, 2010).”
§ Phasic and sustained fear in humans elicits distinct patterns of brain activity > Discussion > Predictable and unpredictable threat are associated with different patterns of brain activation
What the sources say
- Not checked yetcites Price and Drevets, 2010 source
Load-bearingStrength:plain· not yet calibratedCausal:correlational· not yet calibrated
Tests✓ Asserted: passes✓ Checkable: passes✓ Load-bearing: passes✓ Based: passes
Probably not a substantial claim. It may state two separate claims as one.
In the paper
“The finding that unpredictable threat induced sustained activity of frontoparietal areas involved in sustained attention (Pardo et al., 1991), is consistent with previous neuroimaging studies linking unpredictable threat to hypervigilance (Carlsson et al., 2006; Hasler et al., 2007).”
§ Phasic and sustained fear in humans elicits distinct patterns of brain activity > Discussion > Predictable and unpredictable threat are associated with different patterns of brain activation
What the sources say
- Not checked yetcites Pardo et al., 1991 source
Load-bearingStrength:plain· not yet calibratedCausal:correlational· not yet calibrated
Tests✓ Asserted: passes✓ Checkable: passes✓ Load-bearing: passes✓ Based: passes
Probably not a substantial claim.
In the paper
“In the present study, unpredictable threat contexts compared to predictable threat contexts elicited greater transient activity in pregenual anterior cingulate cortex (pACC), a cingulate subregion that differs from sACC in its cytological and transmitter receptor architecture (Palomero-Gallagher, et al., 2008).”
§ Phasic and sustained fear in humans elicits distinct patterns of brain activity > Discussion > Predictable and unpredictable threat are associated with different patterns of brain activation
What the sources say
- Not checked yetcites Palomero-Gallagher, et al., 2008 source
Strength:plain· not yet calibrated
Tests✓ Asserted: passes✓ Checkable: passes✗ Load-bearing: fails✓ Based: passes
Probably not a substantial claim. The paper’s conclusions may not depend on it.
In the paper
“Although the medial prefrontal network was not the focus of this study, the activations observed in this network are consistent with previous imaging studies implicating medial prefrontal cortex in distal threat (Mobbs et al., 2009), and suggest that contextually induced sustained anxiety may involve complex oscillations in neural activity in key prefrontal regions such as pACC and sACC.”
§ Phasic and sustained fear in humans elicits distinct patterns of brain activity > Discussion > Predictable and unpredictable threat are associated with different patterns of brain activation
What the sources say
- Not checked yetcites Mobbs et al., 2009 source
Strength:hedged· not yet calibratedCausal:conditional· not yet calibrated
Tests✓ Asserted: passes✓ Checkable: passes? Load-bearing: unclear✓ Based: passes
It may state two separate claims as one.
In the paper
“Previous neuroimaging findings indicating that contextual fear conditioning elicits sustained activity in anterior insula are consistent with this interpretation (Alvarez et al., 2008).”
§ Phasic and sustained fear in humans elicits distinct patterns of brain activity > Discussion > Predictable and unpredictable threat are associated with different patterns of brain activation
What the sources say
- Not checked yetcites Alvarez et al., 2008 source
Strength:hedged· not yet calibratedCausal:direct· not yet calibrated
Tests✓ Asserted: passes✓ Checkable: passes✗ Load-bearing: fails✓ Based: passes
Probably not a substantial claim. The paper’s conclusions may not depend on it.
In the paper
“Clinical studies indicate that metabolism in sACC is elevated in the depressed phase relative to the remitted phase of the same patients with major depressive disorder (Drevets et al., 2008).”
§ Phasic and sustained fear in humans elicits distinct patterns of brain activity > Discussion > Predictable and unpredictable threat are associated with different patterns of brain activation
What the sources say
- Not checked yetcites Drevets et al., 2008 source
Load-bearingStrength:hedged· not yet calibratedCausal:correlational· not yet calibrated
Tests✓ Asserted: passes✓ Checkable: passes✓ Load-bearing: passes✓ Based: passes
Probably not a substantial claim.
None of the sources cited for this claim have been checked yet.
In the paper
“The finding that unpredictable threat induced sustained activity of frontoparietal areas involved in sustained attention (Pardo et al., 1991), is consistent with previous neuroimaging studies linking unpredictable threat to hypervigilance (Carlsson et al., 2006; Hasler et al., 2007).”
§ Phasic and sustained fear in humans elicits distinct patterns of brain activity > Discussion > Predictable and unpredictable threat are associated with different patterns of brain activation
What the sources say
- Not checked yetcites Carlsson et al., 2006 source
- Not checked yetcites Hasler et al., 2007 source
Strength:plain· not yet calibratedCausal:correlational· not yet calibrated
Tests✓ Asserted: passes✓ Checkable: passes✗ Load-bearing: fails✓ Based: passes
Probably not a substantial claim. The paper’s conclusions may not depend on it.

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The paper relies on this without support.
It is currently unclear whether similar mechanisms support the expression of phasic and sustained fear in humans.
“It is currently unclear whether similar mechanisms support the expression of phasic and sustained fear in humans.”
The paper relies on this without support.
Standard fMRI voxel volumes are typically not small enough to decrease partial volume effects nor provide the spatial resolution required to detect fMRI signal changes from small brain regions.
“Standard fMRI voxel volumes (e.g., 3.8 × 3.8 × 4.0 mm3) are typically not small enough to decrease partial volume effects nor do they provide the spatial resolution required to detect fMRI signal changes from small brain regions.”
The paper relies on this without support.
The transition at context onset prevented unwanted orienting responses.
“This transition at context onset prevented unwanted orienting responses.”

3 of 3

Claims other papers make about this one

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Statistics that don’t add up

Each reported p-value recomputed from its test statistic and degrees of freedom.

Inconsistent p-value: F(1, 17)=4.21, p = .055
Minor
The paper reports p = .055 here; recomputing from the test statistic and its degrees of freedom gives p = .056. The check cannot tell whether the statistic or the p-value is the misprint.
Reported p = .055 · recomputed p = .056
Inconsistent p-value: F(1, 17)=5.80, p = .027
Minor
The paper reports p = .027 here; recomputing from the test statistic and its degrees of freedom gives p = .028. The check cannot tell whether the statistic or the p-value is the misprint.
Reported p = .027 · recomputed p = .028
Inconsistent p-value: F(1, 16)=8.37, p = .010
Minor
The paper reports p = .01 here; recomputing from the test statistic and its degrees of freedom gives p = .011. The check cannot tell whether the statistic or the p-value is the misprint.
Reported p = .01 · recomputed p = .011

3 of 3

Statistics recomputed

Every reported test result, recomputed from its test statistic and degrees of freedom. A result shows as not adding up only once an independent check has confirmed it.

Doesn’t add upF(1, 17) = 5.8reported p = .027 · recomputed p = .028
“F(1, 17)=5.80, p = .027”
Doesn’t add upF(1, 17) = 4.21reported p = .055 · recomputed p = .056
“F(1, 17)=4.21, p = .055”
Doesn’t add upF(1, 16) = 8.37reported p = .01 · recomputed p = .011
“F(1, 16)=8.37, p = .010”
Not confirmedF(1, 17) = 1.72reported p = .206 · recomputed p = .207
“F(1, 17)=1.72, p = .206”
ConsistentF(1.6, 27.5) = 38.13reported p < .001 · recomputed p < .001
“F(1.6, 27.5)=38.13, p < .001”
ConsistentF(1.6, 28.5) = 17.74reported p < .001 · recomputed p < .001
“F(1.6, 28.5)= 17.74, p < .001”
ConsistentF(1, 17) = 343.2reported p < .001 · recomputed p < .001
“F(1,17)=343.2, p < .001”
ConsistentF(1, 17) = 22.9reported p < .001 · recomputed p < .001
“F(1,17)=22.9, p < .001”
ConsistentF(1, 17) = 19.44reported p < .001 · recomputed p < .001
“F(1, 17)=19.44, p < .001”
ConsistentF(1, 17) = 14.45reported p = .0014 · recomputed p = .001
“F(1, 17)=14.45, p = .0014”
ConsistentF(1, 17) = 3.32reported p = .086 · recomputed p = .086
“F(1, 17)=3.32, p = .086”
ConsistentF(1, 16) = 5.17reported p = .037 · recomputed p = .037
“F(1, 16)=5.17, p = .037”
ConsistentF(1, 16) = 2.07reported p = .169 · recomputed p = .169
“F(1, 16)=2.07, p = .169”

13 of 13

Self-check

Percentages, sums and reported differences re-computed from the paper’s own numbers.

Self-check results appear here once an independent check has confirmed them.

Co-Planar Stereotaxic Atlas of the Human Brain
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“Therefore, we further hypothesized that the threat of unpredictable shock would generate sustained activity in anterior insula, an area that also has strong projections to medial prefrontal cortical regions associated with the regulation of emotions and visceral reactions (Price and Drevets, 2010).”
Influential
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Sustained attention in context conditioning: Evidence from steady-state VEPs
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Distinct state anxiety after predictable and unpredictable fear training in mice
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NMDA receptors in the CeA and BNST differentially regulate fear conditioning to predictable and unpredictable threats
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Distributed and Multifaceted Effects of Threat and Safety
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Resting‐state fMRI effective connectivity between the bed nucleus of the stria terminalis and amygdala nuclei
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The Importance of Common Currency Tasks in Translational Psychiatry
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Aversive perception in a threat context: Separate and independent neural activation
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BNST and amygdala activation to threat: Effects of temporal predictability and threat mode
Siminski, N., Böhme, S., Zeller, J. B. M., Becker, M. P. I., Bruchmann, M., Hofmann, D., Breuer, F., Mühlberger, A., Schiele, M. A., Weber, H., et al. (2020) · Behavioural Brain Research · doi:10.1016/j.bbr.2020.112883 · Cited by 17
Distinct Activity Patterns of the Human Bed Nucleus of the Stria Terminalis and Amygdala during Fear Learning
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Resting-state causal connectivity of the bed nucleus of the stria terminalis in panic disorder
Pang, M., Zhong, Y., Hao, Z., Xu, H., Wu, Y., Teng, C., Li, J., Xiao, C., Fox, P. T., Zhang, N., et al. (2019) · Brain Imaging and Behavior · doi:10.1007/s11682-019-00229-x · Cited by 16
Higher resting-state BNST-CeA connectivity is associated with greater corrugator supercilii reactivity to negatively valenced images
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Increased Anxiety After Stimulation of the Right Inferior Parietal Lobe and the Left Orbitofrontal Cortex
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The integration of negative affect, pain and cognitive control in the cingulate cortex
Fig., A. (2011) · Cited by 16
Assessing the role of the amygdala in fear of pain: Neural activation under threat of shock
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The Limbic System in Co-Occurring Substance Use and Anxiety Disorders: A Narrative Review Using the RDoC Framework
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No Impact of Deep Brain Stimulation on Fear-Potentiated Startle in Obsessive–Compulsive Disorder
Baas, J. M. P., Klumpers, F., Mantione, M. H. M., Figee, M., Vulink, N. C. C., Schuurman, P. R., Mazaheri, A., & Denys, D. A. J. P. (2014) · Frontiers in Behavioral Neuroscience · doi:10.3389/fnbeh.2014.00305 · Cited by 15
Converging evidence for an impact of a functionalNOSgene variation on anxiety-related processes
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Authors: Alvarez, R. P., Chen, G., Bodurka, J., Kaplan, R., & Grillon, C.
Affiliations: National Institutes of Health (US)
Corresponding author: Alvarez, Ruben P.
ORCID: Chen, Gang
Bodurka, Jerzy
Kaplan, Raphael
Grillon, Christian
Venue: NeuroImage
Publisher: Elsevier BV
Published: 2011-03
Volume: 55
Issue: 1
Pages: 389-400
ISSN: 1053-8119 (ISSN-L)
DOI: 10.1016/j.neuroimage.2010.11.057
PMC: PMC3100535
OpenAlex: W2027289999
Semantic Scholar: 99e0c06ed1cdabb20db71e1b5b5f5ffe3ba61183
Cited by: 299
References: 70
Citations by year: 2026: 9 · 2025: 9 · 2024: 17 · 2023: 16 · 2022: 18 · 2021: 20 · 2020: 24 · 2019: 28 · 2018: 17 · 2017: 31 · 2016: 34 · 2015: 24 · 2014: 14 · 2013: 21 · 2012: 12
FWCI: 7.36
Type: journal article
Language: en
Open access: green
www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov
Licence: www.elsevier.com/tdm/userlicense/1.0/ (tdm)
Locations: NeuroImage (publishedVersion)
PubMed (publishedVersion)
Europe PMC (PubMed Central) (acceptedVersion)
PubMed Central (acceptedVersion)
UCL Discovery (University College London) (submittedVersion)
Funders: National Institutes of Health
National Institute of Mental Health (ZIAMH002798)
Topics: Life Sciences › Neuroscience › Cognitive Neuroscience › Memory and Neural Mechanisms
Life Sciences › Neuroscience › Cognitive Neuroscience › Neural and Behavioral Psychology Studies
Social Sciences › Psychology › Experimental and Cognitive Psychology › Anxiety, Depression, Psychometrics, Treatment, Cognitive Processes
Keywords: bed nucleus of the stria terminalis, anterior insula, hypervigilance, pregenual anterior cingulate cortex, subgenual anterior cingulate cortex, basal forebrain, skin conductance
MeSH terms: Brain, Fear, Humans, Magnetic Resonance Imaging, Male, Nerve Net, Young Adult

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Phasic and sustained fear in humans elicits distinct patterns of brain activity

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