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Phasic and sustained fear in humans elicits distinct patterns of brain activity
Open accessAbstract
Aversive events are typically more debilitating when they occur unpredictably than predictably. Studies in humans and animals indicate that predictable and unpredictable aversive events can induce phasic and sustained fear, respectively. Research in rodents suggests that anatomically related but distinct neural circuits may mediate phasic and sustained fear. We explored this issue in humans by examining threat predictability in three virtual reality contexts, one in which electric shocks were predictably signaled by a cue, a second in which shocks occurred unpredictably but never paired with a cue, and a third in which no shocks were delivered. Evidence of threat-induced phasic and sustained fear was presented using fear ratings and skin conductance. Utilizing recent advances in functional magnetic resonance imaging (fMRI), we were able to conduct whole-brain fMRI at relatively high spatial resolution and still have enough sensitivity to detect transient and sustained signal changes in the basal forebrain. We found that both predictable and unpredictable threat evoked transient activity in the dorsal amygdala, but that only unpredictable threat produced sustained activity in a forebrain region corresponding to the bed nucleus of the stria terminalis complex. Consistent with animal models hypothesizing a role for the cortex in generating sustained fear, sustained signal increases to unpredictable threat were also found in anterior insula and a frontoparietal cortical network associated with hypervigilance. In addition, unpredictable threat led to transient activity in the ventral amygdala–hippocampal area and pregenual anterior cingulate cortex, as well as transient activation and subsequent deactivation of subgenual anterior cingulate cortex, limbic structures that have been implicated in the regulation of emotional behavior and stress responses. In line with basic findings in rodents, these results provide evidence that phasic and sustained fear in humans may manifest similar signs of distress, but appear to be associated with different patterns of neural activity in the human basal forebrain.
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64 Not checked yet · 64 Own result · 25 Own interpretation · 15 Own method · 2 No basis given
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“Whereas a comparison between Uons and Nons revealed increased transient activity in anterior BNST (t17=4.41, P<0.001), a comparison between Ucxt and Ncxt showed no significant difference in sustained activity in anterior BNST (t17=1.42, P=0.18).”
§ Phasic and sustained fear in humans elicits distinct patterns of brain activity > Results
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“Compared to the predictable context, the unpredictable context induced enhanced transient activity in the thalamus, mid-cingulate, and pregenual anterior cingulate cortex as well (Table 2).”
§ Phasic and sustained fear in humans elicits distinct patterns of brain activity > Results
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“As was found in Uons>Nons and Uons>Pons, the predictable context transiently increased activity bilaterally in the anterior part of the BNST complex compared to the no-shock context (Table 1).”
§ Phasic and sustained fear in humans elicits distinct patterns of brain activity > Results
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“Consistent with the voxel-wise analyses, there was a trend for Ucxt to show greater sustained activity in dorsal BNST relative to Ncxt (t17=1.82, P=0.08).”
§ Phasic and sustained fear in humans elicits distinct patterns of brain activity > Results
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“Follow-up analyses of left and right dorsal amygdala ROIs yielded a similar result (left, t17=0.23, P=0.82; right, t17=0.71, P=0.49).”
§ Phasic and sustained fear in humans elicits distinct patterns of brain activity > Results
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“Importantly, unpredictable threat elicited sustained increased activity in the dorsal portion of the BNST complex (Table 1, Fig. 3C) in the approximate vicinity of the supracapsular BNST.”
§ Phasic and sustained fear in humans elicits distinct patterns of brain activity > Results
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“This contrast revealed greater brain activity to Pcue than Ucue in a region of the dorsal amygdala overlapping the dorsal amygdala activation in Pcue>Ncue (Table 1).”
§ Phasic and sustained fear in humans elicits distinct patterns of brain activity > Results
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“but that only unpredictable threat produced sustained activity in a forebrain region corresponding to the bed nucleus of the stria terminalis complex”
§ Phasic and sustained fear in humans elicits distinct patterns of brain activity > Abstract
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“In addition, Uons compared to Pons showed that transient activity in anterior BNST was greater to the unpredictable context than the predictable context (t17=2.27, P<0.05), and Pons compared to Nons showed that transient activation of anterior BNST tended to be greater to the predictable context than the no-shock context (t17=1.93, P<0.07).”
§ Phasic and sustained fear in humans elicits distinct patterns of brain activity > Results
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“However, when whole-brain correction was performed using a voxel-wise threshold of P<0.05, the unpredictable context showed a sustained deactivation in subgenual anterior cingulate cortex (sACC) relative to the predictable context (Table 2)”
§ Phasic and sustained fear in humans elicits distinct patterns of brain activity > Results
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“We also found that Pcue elicited less activity relative to Ucue in the posterior cingulate and precuneus (Table 2).”
§ Phasic and sustained fear in humans elicits distinct patterns of brain activity > Results
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“Unpredictable threat transiently increased activity in the anterior portion of the BNST complex (Table 1, Fig. 3B) in the approximate vicinity of the lateral BNST.”
§ Phasic and sustained fear in humans elicits distinct patterns of brain activity > Results
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“as well as transient activation and subsequent deactivation of subgenual anterior cingulate cortex”
§ Phasic and sustained fear in humans elicits distinct patterns of brain activity > Abstract
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“Voxel-wise analyses revealed no activation in dorsal amygdala to unpredictable threat, but our analysis based on ROI data showed that transient activity in dorsal amygdala tended to be greater to the unpredictable context onset than the onset of the no-shock context (t17=1.95, P=0.067).”
§ Phasic and sustained fear in humans elicits distinct patterns of brain activity > Results
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“Follow-up analyses indicated that the trend for increased sustained activity in response to unpredictable threat was present in both hemispheres in dorsal BNST, but relatively stronger in the left hemisphere (left, t17=2.05; P=0.056; right, t17=1.31; P=0.21).”
§ Phasic and sustained fear in humans elicits distinct patterns of brain activity > Results
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“Paired t-tests revealed that the predictable cue (Pcue) [ANX: mean (SEM) 7.3 (0.3); SCR: 0.45 (0.06)] was more anxiogenic than the predictable context (Pcxt) [ANX: 4.3 (0.5); t17=6.0, P<0.001; SCR: 0.26 (0.04); t17=5.2, P<0.001] as well as the no-shock cue (Ncue) [ANX: 1.3 (0.3); t17=13.3, P<0.001; SCR: 0.13 (0.03); t17=7.5, P<0.001], and unpredictable cue (Ucue) [ANX: 5.2 (0.5); t17=4.0, P<0.001;”
§ Phasic and sustained fear in humans elicits distinct patterns of brain activity > Results
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“As in the contrast with the no-shock context, the unpredictable context transiently increased activity in the BNST complex relative to the predictable context (Table 1).”
§ Phasic and sustained fear in humans elicits distinct patterns of brain activity > Results
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“In addition, we found increased transient activity in subgenual, pregenual, and dorsal regions of the anterior cingulate, the medial caudate, and medial orbital and middle temporal cortices (Table 2 and Fig. 4B).”
§ Phasic and sustained fear in humans elicits distinct patterns of brain activity > Results
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“Predictable threat evoked phasic activity in the dorsal amygdala (Table 1 and Fig. 3A), roughly in the vicinity of the CeA.”
§ Phasic and sustained fear in humans elicits distinct patterns of brain activity > Results
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“No other significant signal changes were detected in this comparison.”
§ Phasic and sustained fear in humans elicits distinct patterns of brain activity > Results
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In the paper
“In addition, Uons compared to Pons showed that transient activity in anterior BNST was greater to the unpredictable context than the predictable context (t17=2.27, P<0.05), and Pons compared to Nons showed that transient activation of anterior BNST tended to be greater to the predictable context than the no-shock context (t17=1.93, P<0.07).”
§ Phasic and sustained fear in humans elicits distinct patterns of brain activity > Results
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In the paper
“When whole-brain correction was performed using a more lenient voxel-wise threshold (P<0.05), however, a large cluster (360 μl) in the ventral amygdala and anterior hippocampus (24 −2 −17, peak; 26 −4 −15, center-of-mass) showed significant transient activation to unpredictable threat.”
§ Phasic and sustained fear in humans elicits distinct patterns of brain activity > Results
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“Relative to baseline, the predictable cue elicited transient activity in dmPFC/dACC among other regions (Fig. 4A, Table S1).”
§ Phasic and sustained fear in humans elicits distinct patterns of brain activity > Results
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In the paper
“We found that both predictable and unpredictable threat evoked transient activity in the dorsal amygdala”
§ Phasic and sustained fear in humans elicits distinct patterns of brain activity > Abstract
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In the paper
“In addition, unpredictable threat led to transient activity in the ventral amygdala–hippocampal area and pregenual anterior cingulate cortex”
§ Phasic and sustained fear in humans elicits distinct patterns of brain activity > Abstract
plaindirect- Asserted: passes — The authors put it forward as true.
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“No other brain regions were statistically significant after correcting for multiple tests.”
§ Phasic and sustained fear in humans elicits distinct patterns of brain activity > Results
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In the paper
“Voxel-wise analyses revealed no activation in dorsal amygdala to unpredictable threat, but our analysis based on ROI data showed that transient activity in dorsal amygdala tended to be greater to the unpredictable context onset than the onset of the no-shock context (t17=1.95, P=0.067).”
§ Phasic and sustained fear in humans elicits distinct patterns of brain activity > Results
hedgedcorrelational- Asserted: passes — The authors put it forward as true.
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In the paper
“Relative to the no-shock context, the predictable context also increased transient activity in subgenual and dorsal anterior cingulate cortex (Table 2).”
§ Phasic and sustained fear in humans elicits distinct patterns of brain activity > Results
plaindirect- Asserted: passes — The authors put it forward as true.
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In the paper
“Nevertheless, ROI analysis of the dorsal amygdala failed to detect significantly greater transient activity to Pcue than Ncue when comparing mean subject-specific β values for each condition extracted from bilateral dorsal amygdala (t17=0.55, P=0.59).”
§ Phasic and sustained fear in humans elicits distinct patterns of brain activity > Results
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In the paper
“There was also a significant linear trend from Ncxt to Pcxt to Ucxt [ANX: F(1,17)=343.2, P<0.001; SCR: F(1,17)=22.9, P<0.001]”
§ Phasic and sustained fear in humans elicits distinct patterns of brain activity > Results
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In the paper
“Following a transient increase in brain activity, unpredictable threat also induced a sustained decrease in activity in subgenual anterior cingulate and medial orbital cortex (Table 2, Fig. 4C and D).”
§ Phasic and sustained fear in humans elicits distinct patterns of brain activity > Results
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In the paper
“sustained signal increases to unpredictable threat were also found in anterior insula and a frontoparietal cortical network associated with hypervigilance”
§ Phasic and sustained fear in humans elicits distinct patterns of brain activity > Abstract
plaincorrelational- Asserted: passes — The authors put it forward as true.
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In the paper
“Overall, analyses of the ROI data from bilateral anterior BNST replicated the pattern of results found in the voxel-wise analyses.”
§ Phasic and sustained fear in humans elicits distinct patterns of brain activity > Results
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In the paper
“It is noteworthy that one subject's beta value for Ucxt met the Hampel identifier criteria for being an outlier (Davies and Gather, 1993), in this case, an unusually small value.”
§ Phasic and sustained fear in humans elicits distinct patterns of brain activity > Results
What the sources say
- Not checked yetcites Davies and Gather, 1993 source
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In the paper
“Paired t-tests revealed that the predictable cue (Pcue) [ANX: mean (SEM) 7.3 (0.3); SCR: 0.45 (0.06)] was more anxiogenic than the predictable context (Pcxt) [ANX: 4.3 (0.5); t17=6.0, P<0.001; SCR: 0.26 (0.04); t17=5.2, P<0.001] as well as the no-shock cue (Ncue) [ANX: 1.3 (0.3); t17=13.3, P<0.001; SCR: 0.13 (0.03); t17=7.5, P<0.001], and unpredictable cue (Ucue) [ANX: 5.2 (0.5); t17=4.0, P<0.001;”
§ Phasic and sustained fear in humans elicits distinct patterns of brain activity > Results
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In the paper
“and that the unpredictable context (Ucxt) [ANX: 7.3 (0.3); SCR: 0.33 (0.06)] was more anxiogenic than the no-shock context (Ncxt) [ANX: 0.7 (0.2); t17=18.5, P<0.001; SCR: 0.14 (0.03); t17=4.8, P<0.001] and predictable context (Pcxt) [ANX: 4.3 (0.5); t17=7.7, P<0.001; SCR: 0.26 (0.04); t17=1.8, P=0.09].”
§ Phasic and sustained fear in humans elicits distinct patterns of brain activity > Results
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In the paper
“Whereas a comparison between Uons and Nons revealed increased transient activity in anterior BNST (t17=4.41, P<0.001), a comparison between Ucxt and Ncxt showed no significant difference in sustained activity in anterior BNST (t17=1.42, P=0.18).”
§ Phasic and sustained fear in humans elicits distinct patterns of brain activity > Results
plaincorrelational- Asserted: passes — The authors put it forward as true.
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In the paper
“Fear ratings (ANX) and skin conductance responses (SCRs) to contexts and cues differed depending on shock predictability [Stimulus Type × Condition interaction, ANX: F(1.6, 27.5)=38.13, P<0.001; Fig. 2A; SCR: F(1.6, 28.5)= 17.74, P<0.001; Fig. 2B].”
§ Phasic and sustained fear in humans elicits distinct patterns of brain activity > Results
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In the paper
“The present voxel-wise and ROI results indicate that sustained activity in the BNST was restricted to the dorsal part of the BNST complex, roughly corresponding to the supracapsular BNST (Heimer et al., 1999).”
§ Phasic and sustained fear in humans elicits distinct patterns of brain activity > Discussion > Predictable and unpredictable threat are associated with different patterns of brain activation
What the sources say
- Not checked yetcites Heimer et al., 1999 source
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In the paper
“Concurring with animal models of phasic and sustained fear (Davis et al., 2010b), both predictable and unpredictable threat increased transient activity in the dorsal amygdala, but only unpredictable threat yielded significant sustained activity in the BNST complex.”
§ Phasic and sustained fear in humans elicits distinct patterns of brain activity > Discussion
What the sources say
- Not checked yetcites Davis et al., 2010b
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“Beyond the amygdala, predictable threat evoked transient activity in rostral dorsomedial prefrontal and dorsal anterior cingulate cortex.”
§ Phasic and sustained fear in humans elicits distinct patterns of brain activity > Discussion
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In the paper
“In addition, aversive events invoked greater sustained anxiety when they occurred unpredictably than predictably.”
§ Phasic and sustained fear in humans elicits distinct patterns of brain activity > Discussion
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In the paper
“Transient activity in the BNST was also greater to the onset of the predictable context than the no-shock context, as would be expected considering the association between the predictable context and cue-related shock.”
§ Phasic and sustained fear in humans elicits distinct patterns of brain activity > Discussion > Predictable and unpredictable threat are associated with different patterns of brain activation
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In the paper
“In support of this interpretation, phasic fear responses and transient activity in dorsal amygdala were greater to the predictable cue than the no-shock cue and unpredictable cue.”
§ Phasic and sustained fear in humans elicits distinct patterns of brain activity > Discussion > Predictable and unpredictable threat are associated with different patterns of brain activation
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In the paper
“In support of a role for the cortex in sustained fear, unpredictable threat produced sustained activity in anterior insula, mid-cingulate, and frontoparietal cortical networks.”
§ Phasic and sustained fear in humans elicits distinct patterns of brain activity > Discussion
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In the paper
“In addition, the peak coordinates of the amygdala activation to predictable threat (−22 −5 −8) are compatible with dorsal amygdala designations in previous fMRI studies (Davis et al., 2010a).”
§ Phasic and sustained fear in humans elicits distinct patterns of brain activity > Discussion > Predictable and unpredictable threat are associated with different patterns of brain activation
What the sources say
- Not checked yetcites Davis et al., 2010a
plaincorrelational- Asserted: passes — The authors put it forward as true.
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In the paper
“and a trend for such an effect from Ncxt to Pcxt to Ucxt in bilateral dorsal BNST (Fig. 5C) (F(1, 17)=3.32, P=0.086; left, F(1, 17)=4.21, P=0.055; right, F(1, 17)=1.72, P=0.206).”
§ Phasic and sustained fear in humans elicits distinct patterns of brain activity > Results
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In the paper
“In support of this view, a ROI analysis revealed that transient activity to unpredictable threat context onset was enhanced in the right dorsal amygdala.”
§ Phasic and sustained fear in humans elicits distinct patterns of brain activity > Discussion > Predictable and unpredictable threat are associated with different patterns of brain activation
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In the paper
“The present finding that a predictable threat cue evoked transient activation of dmPFC/dACC supports this hypothesis.”
§ Phasic and sustained fear in humans elicits distinct patterns of brain activity > Discussion > Predictable and unpredictable threat are associated with different patterns of brain activation
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In the paper
“Behaviorally, predictable and unpredictable threat evoked pronounced emotional reactions as indicated by subjective fear ratings and skin conductance.”
§ Phasic and sustained fear in humans elicits distinct patterns of brain activity > Discussion
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In the paper
“In support of this hypothesis, trend analyses performed on ROI data from the BNST complex revealed a significant linear trend from Nons to Pons to Uons in bilateral anterior BNST (Fig. 5B) (F(1, 17)=19.44, P<0.001; left, F(1, 17)=14.45, P=0.0014; right, F(1, 17)=5.80, P=0.027)”
§ Phasic and sustained fear in humans elicits distinct patterns of brain activity > Results
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In the paper
“Concurring with animal models of phasic and sustained fear (Davis et al., 2010b), both predictable and unpredictable threat increased transient activity in the dorsal amygdala, but only unpredictable threat yielded significant sustained activity in the BNST complex.”
§ Phasic and sustained fear in humans elicits distinct patterns of brain activity > Discussion
What the sources say
- Not checked yetcites Davis et al., 2010b
plaindirect- Asserted: passes — The authors put it forward as true.
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In the paper
“Neural activity in the posterior cingulate and precuneus were attenuated by the predictable cue compared to the unpredictable cue.”
§ Phasic and sustained fear in humans elicits distinct patterns of brain activity > Discussion > Predictable and unpredictable threat are associated with different patterns of brain activation
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In the paper
“In line with this interpretation, in the present study transient activity in the BNST complex was greater to the onset of the unpredictable context than the predictable context.”
§ Phasic and sustained fear in humans elicits distinct patterns of brain activity > Discussion > Predictable and unpredictable threat are associated with different patterns of brain activation
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In the paper
“Using high-resolution fMRI, we found that predictable and unpredictable threat produced different patterns of neural activity in a forebrain region consistent with the extended amygdala, which encompasses the dorsal amygdala and BNST complex (Heimer et al., 2008).”
§ Phasic and sustained fear in humans elicits distinct patterns of brain activity > Discussion
What the sources say
- Not checked yetcites Heimer et al., 2008
plaindirect- Asserted: passes — The authors put it forward as true.
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In the paper
“In both the voxel-wise and ROI results of the present study, we observed transient activity to the onset of unpredictable threat in the anterior part of the BNST complex in the approximate vicinity of the lateral BNST.”
§ Phasic and sustained fear in humans elicits distinct patterns of brain activity > Discussion > Predictable and unpredictable threat are associated with different patterns of brain activation
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In the paper
“This point is underscored by the inability to replicate the predictable threat effect in the ROI analysis of the dorsal amygdala.”
§ Phasic and sustained fear in humans elicits distinct patterns of brain activity > Discussion > Predictable and unpredictable threat are associated with different patterns of brain activation
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In the paper
“In the present study, unpredictable threat contexts compared to predictable threat contexts elicited greater transient activity in pregenual anterior cingulate cortex (pACC), a cingulate subregion that differs from sACC in its cytological and transmitter receptor architecture (Palomero-Gallagher, et al., 2008).”
§ Phasic and sustained fear in humans elicits distinct patterns of brain activity > Discussion > Predictable and unpredictable threat are associated with different patterns of brain activation
plaindirect- Asserted: passes — The authors put it forward as true.
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In the paper
“The finding that unpredictable threat induced sustained activity of frontoparietal areas involved in sustained attention (Pardo et al., 1991), is consistent with previous neuroimaging studies linking unpredictable threat to hypervigilance (Carlsson et al., 2006; Hasler et al., 2007).”
§ Phasic and sustained fear in humans elicits distinct patterns of brain activity > Discussion > Predictable and unpredictable threat are associated with different patterns of brain activation
plaindirect- Asserted: passes — The authors put it forward as true.
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In the paper
“Supporting this prediction, in the present study anatomical ROI analyses revealed a linear trend in transient and sustained activity in the BNST complex, paralleling a linear trend found in contextually induced sustained anxiety as indexed by subjective fear and skin conductance.”
§ Phasic and sustained fear in humans elicits distinct patterns of brain activity > Discussion > Summary and caveats
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In the paper
“Neural activity in sACC showed a strong transient increase to the onset of unpredictable threat followed by a sustained decreased response.”
§ Phasic and sustained fear in humans elicits distinct patterns of brain activity > Discussion > Predictable and unpredictable threat are associated with different patterns of brain activation
boosteddirect- Asserted: passes — The authors put it forward as true.
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In the paper
“unpredictable threats generally induce sustained fear, a longer-lasting apprehension elicited by potential or temporally uncertain threat (Davis et al., 2010b)”
§ Phasic and sustained fear in humans elicits distinct patterns of brain activity > Introduction
What the sources say
- Not checked yetcites Davis et al., 2010b
plaindirect- Asserted: passes — The authors put it forward as true.
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In the paper
“suggesting that unpredictable threats are generally more harmful”
§ Phasic and sustained fear in humans elicits distinct patterns of brain activity > Introduction
hedgeddirect- Asserted: passes — The authors put it forward as true.
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In the paper
“a diffuse cue that signals a temporally unpredictable threat (e.g., a hazardous environment) elicits a longer-lasting anxiety-like state (sustained fear) associated with passive defensive behaviors such as hypervigilance, avoidance, and quiescence (Blanchard and Blanchard, 2008; Grillon, 2008)”
§ Phasic and sustained fear in humans elicits distinct patterns of brain activity > Introduction
What the sources say
- Not checked yetcites Blanchard and Blanchard, 2008
- Not checked yetcites Grillon, 2008 source
plaincorrelational- Asserted: passes — The authors put it forward as true.
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In the paper
“These effects are usually not found when the same aversive events or threats are predictable (Grillon et al., 2004; Mineka and Hendersen, 1985)”
§ Phasic and sustained fear in humans elicits distinct patterns of brain activity > Introduction
What the sources say
hedged- Asserted: passes — The authors put it forward as true.
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A conclusion the paper draws from its own results — it cites no other source for it, so there is none to check. The quote shows it is in the paper.
In the paper
“These previous findings support the hypothesis that a neural circuit within the dorsal amygdala may mediate phasic fear in humans.”
§ Phasic and sustained fear in humans elicits distinct patterns of brain activity > Introduction
hedgedconditional- Asserted: passes — The authors put it forward as true.
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In the paper
“Studies of instructed fear that have examined neural activity underlying both anticipation of and responses to briefly presented aversive pictures have also revealed dorsal amygdala activation (Mackiewicz et al., 2006; Nitschke et al., 2006), provided that the aversive events are predictably signaled (Sarinopoulos et al., 2010).”
§ Phasic and sustained fear in humans elicits distinct patterns of brain activity > Introduction
What the sources say
plaincorrelational- Asserted: passes — The authors put it forward as true.
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In the paper
“While many neuroimaging studies in humans have investigated the role of the amygdala in phasic fear, few have examined the specific role of the BNST in sustained fear (Straube et al., 2007).”
§ Phasic and sustained fear in humans elicits distinct patterns of brain activity > Introduction
What the sources say
- Not checked yetcites Straube et al., 2007 source
plain- Asserted: passes — The authors put it forward as true.
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In the paper
“In humans and animals, unpredictable aversive events produce debilitating behavioral, cognitive, and somatic effects similar to those found in anxiety and mood disorders (Grillon et al., 2004; Mineka and Kihlstrom, 1978).”
§ Phasic and sustained fear in humans elicits distinct patterns of brain activity > Introduction
What the sources say
plaindirect- Asserted: passes — The authors put it forward as true.
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In the paper
“predictable threats typically induce phasic fear, a short-lasting apprehension concerning imminent threat”
§ Phasic and sustained fear in humans elicits distinct patterns of brain activity > Introduction
What the sources say
- Not checked yetcites Davis et al., 2010b
plaindirect- Asserted: passes — The authors put it forward as true.
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What the paper did — it cites no source for this, so there is none to check. The quote shows it is in the paper.
In the paper
“Although shocks were never delivered during a cue in Ucxt, it is unlikely that unpredictable cues served as signals of safety since subjects were instructed that a shock could occur at any time during the unpredictable context.”
§ Phasic and sustained fear in humans elicits distinct patterns of brain activity > Materials and methods > Experimental procedures
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In the paper
“indicating that contextually induced sustained anxiety increased linearly across conditions”
§ Phasic and sustained fear in humans elicits distinct patterns of brain activity > Results
hedgeddirect- Asserted: passes — The authors put it forward as true.
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In the paper
“Although the SCR difference between Ucxt and Pcxt was marginally significant compared to the ANX difference, probably because SCRs to context onset are less sensitive indicators of sustained fear states”
§ Phasic and sustained fear in humans elicits distinct patterns of brain activity > Results
hedgedconditional- Asserted: passes — The authors put it forward as true.
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In the paper
“Moreover, combining parallel imaging and voxel volume reduction provides the added benefit of reducing susceptibility-related signal dropout from different tissue interfaces (Bellgowan et al., 2006).”
§ Phasic and sustained fear in humans elicits distinct patterns of brain activity > Introduction
What the sources say
- Not checked yetcites Bellgowan et al., 2006 source
plaindirect- Asserted: passes — The authors put it forward as true.
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A conclusion the paper draws from its own results — it cites no other source for it, so there is none to check. The quote shows it is in the paper.
In the paper
“these results support the view that aversive events produce more sustained anxiety when they occur unpredictably than predictably”
§ Phasic and sustained fear in humans elicits distinct patterns of brain activity > Results
plaindirect- Asserted: passes — The authors put it forward as true.
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In the paper
“However, the relatively small size of the CeA, the close proximity of surrounding nuclei (e.g., basal nucleus of Meynert), and the spatial resolution of fMRI make it extremely difficult to localize the specific neuronal source underlying any dorsal amygdala activation.”
§ Phasic and sustained fear in humans elicits distinct patterns of brain activity > Discussion > Predictable and unpredictable threat are associated with different patterns of brain activation
plaindirect- Asserted: passes — The authors put it forward as true.
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In the paper
“The conclusion that dorsal amygdala activation in the present study may reflect involvement of the CeA is supported by previous neuroimaging findings (Whalen et al., 2001).”
§ Phasic and sustained fear in humans elicits distinct patterns of brain activity > Discussion > Predictable and unpredictable threat are associated with different patterns of brain activation
What the sources say
- Not checked yetcites Whalen et al., 2001 source
hedgedconditional- Asserted: passes — The authors put it forward as true.
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A conclusion the paper draws from its own results — it cites no other source for it, so there is none to check. The quote shows it is in the paper.
In the paper
“In the present study, transient neural activity in the dorsal amygdala to a predictable threat cue likely reflected processes in the CeA that lead to a rapid phasic fear response.”
§ Phasic and sustained fear in humans elicits distinct patterns of brain activity > Discussion > Predictable and unpredictable threat are associated with different patterns of brain activation
hedgeddirect- Asserted: passes — The authors put it forward as true.
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None of the sources cited for this claim have been checked yet.
In the paper
“Transient activation in ventral amygdala/anterior hippocampus to unpredictable threat context onset provides further evidence that the amygdala (Alvarez et al., 2008; Davis et al., 2010b) and hippocampus (Marschner et al., 2008) play time-limited roles during sustained aversive contexts.”
§ Phasic and sustained fear in humans elicits distinct patterns of brain activity > Discussion > Predictable and unpredictable threat are associated with different patterns of brain activation
What the sources say
plaincorrelational- Asserted: passes — The authors put it forward as true.
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In the paper
“Data in rodents and humans suggest that sustained states of apprehension, including contextually induced anxiety, may stem in part from neural activity in the BNST (Davis et al., 2010b).”
§ Phasic and sustained fear in humans elicits distinct patterns of brain activity > Results
What the sources say
- Not checked yetcites Davis et al., 2010b
hedgedconditional- Asserted: passes — The authors put it forward as true.
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In the paper
“It is worth noting however, that detection of amygdala activation in instructed fear studies has been somewhat unreliable (Mechias et al., 2010).”
§ Phasic and sustained fear in humans elicits distinct patterns of brain activity > Discussion > Predictable and unpredictable threat are associated with different patterns of brain activation
What the sources say
- Not checked yetcites Mechias et al., 2010 source
hedged- Asserted: passes — The authors put it forward as true.
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A conclusion the paper draws from its own results — it cites no other source for it, so there is none to check. The quote shows it is in the paper.
In the paper
“We suggest that transient neural activity in the ventral amygdala to unpredictable threat reflected processes in the BLC that lead to activation of the extended amygdala.”
§ Phasic and sustained fear in humans elicits distinct patterns of brain activity > Discussion > Predictable and unpredictable threat are associated with different patterns of brain activation
hedgeddirect- Asserted: passes — The authors put it forward as true.
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A conclusion the paper draws from its own results — it cites no other source for it, so there is none to check. The quote shows it is in the paper.
In the paper
“therefore, it is possible that these continuous components of the extended amygdala function together to bring about sustained anxiety.”
§ Phasic and sustained fear in humans elicits distinct patterns of brain activity > Discussion > Predictable and unpredictable threat are associated with different patterns of brain activation
hedgedconditional- Asserted: passes — The authors put it forward as true.
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A conclusion the paper draws from its own results — it cites no other source for it, so there is none to check. The quote shows it is in the paper.
In the paper
“We suggest that transient activity in the dorsal amygdala to the onset of an unpredictable threat context may reflect processes in the CeA that lead to the initiation of sustained fear.”
§ Phasic and sustained fear in humans elicits distinct patterns of brain activity > Discussion > Predictable and unpredictable threat are associated with different patterns of brain activation
hedgedconditional- Asserted: passes — The authors put it forward as true.
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In the paper
“Supporting the notion that the supracapsular and lateral BNST might function together to generate sustained anxiety, the basolateral amygdala and lateral CeA provide extensive inputs to both the supracapsular and lateral BNST (Shammah-Lagnado et al., 2000).”
§ Phasic and sustained fear in humans elicits distinct patterns of brain activity > Discussion > Predictable and unpredictable threat are associated with different patterns of brain activation
What the sources say
- Not checked yetcites Shammah-Lagnado et al., 2000 source
plaincorrelational- Asserted: passes — The authors put it forward as true.
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In the paper
“Straube et al. (2007) reported increased activity in a similar region of the BNST in phobics relative to controls during the anticipation of phobia-related pictures.”
§ Phasic and sustained fear in humans elicits distinct patterns of brain activity > Discussion > Predictable and unpredictable threat are associated with different patterns of brain activation
What the sources say
- Not checked yetcites Straube et al. (2007) source
plaincorrelational- Asserted: passes — The authors put it forward as true.
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A conclusion the paper draws from its own results — it cites no other source for it, so there is none to check. The quote shows it is in the paper.
In the paper
“This suggests that a sustained decrease that follows a transient increase in sACC activity might reflect changes in the regulation of visceral reactions during threat exposure.”
§ Phasic and sustained fear in humans elicits distinct patterns of brain activity > Discussion > Predictable and unpredictable threat are associated with different patterns of brain activation
hedgedconditional- Asserted: passes — The authors put it forward as true.
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In the paper
“Data in rodents and humans (Davis et al., 2010b) support the hypothesis that the amygdala and BNST form the core of a neural system underlying phasic and sustained states of apprehension.”
§ Phasic and sustained fear in humans elicits distinct patterns of brain activity > Discussion > Summary and caveats
What the sources say
- Not checked yetcites Davis et al., 2010b
plaincorrelational- Asserted: passes — The authors put it forward as true.
- Checkable: passes — It can be checked against evidence.
- Load-bearing: passes — The paper’s conclusions depend on it.
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A conclusion the paper draws from its own results — it cites no other source for it, so there is none to check. The quote shows it is in the paper.
In the paper
“As the duration of threat persists, transient activation of the dorsal amygdala gives way to activation of the BNST complex to help maintain anxiety.”
§ Phasic and sustained fear in humans elicits distinct patterns of brain activity > Discussion > Summary and caveats
plaindirect- Asserted: passes — The authors put it forward as true.
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- Load-bearing: passes — The paper’s conclusions depend on it.
- Based: passes — The paper gives a reason why it holds.
A conclusion the paper draws from its own results — it cites no other source for it, so there is none to check. The quote shows it is in the paper.
In the paper
“We propose that cues that predictably signal imminent threat evoke a short-duration fear response mediated by transient activity in the dorsal amygdala.”
§ Phasic and sustained fear in humans elicits distinct patterns of brain activity > Discussion > Summary and caveats
hedgeddirect- Asserted: passes — The authors put it forward as true.
- Checkable: passes — It can be checked against evidence.
- Load-bearing: passes — The paper’s conclusions depend on it.
- Based: passes — The paper gives a reason why it holds.
None of the sources cited for this claim have been checked yet.
In the paper
“On the basis of its connections to the extended amygdala and brainstem (McDonald et al., 1999; Pascoe and Kapp, 1987), it may be more parsimonious to posit that sustained neural activity in the anterior insula to unpredictable threat likely reflects modulation of visceral arousal during apprehension.”
§ Phasic and sustained fear in humans elicits distinct patterns of brain activity > Discussion > Predictable and unpredictable threat are associated with different patterns of brain activation
What the sources say
- Not checked yetcites McDonald et al., 1999 source
- Not checked yetcites Pascoe and Kapp, 1987
hedgedconditional- Asserted: passes — The authors put it forward as true.
- Checkable: passes — It can be checked against evidence.
- Load-bearing: passes — The paper’s conclusions depend on it.
- Based: passes — The paper gives a reason why it holds.
In the paper
“The observation that unpredictable threat produced significantly sustained activity in a brain region corresponding to the BNST, and not the dorsal amygdala, is consistent with the hypothesis that sustained fear may depend on different neural mechanisms in the extended amygdala than phasic fear (Davis et al., 2010b).”
§ Phasic and sustained fear in humans elicits distinct patterns of brain activity > Discussion > Summary and caveats
What the sources say
- Not checked yetcites Davis et al., 2010b
hedgedconditional- Asserted: passes — The authors put it forward as true.
- Checkable: passes — It can be checked against evidence.
- Load-bearing: passes — The paper’s conclusions depend on it.
- Based: passes — The paper gives a reason why it holds.
What the paper did — it cites no source for this, so there is none to check. The quote shows it is in the paper.
In the paper
“It is important to interpret this finding cautiously, however, because the presence of a significant signal change to unpredictable threat, and the absence of such a change to predictable threat, does not demonstrate a significant difference between the two threat conditions.”
§ Phasic and sustained fear in humans elicits distinct patterns of brain activity > Discussion > Summary and caveats
plain- Asserted: passes — The authors put it forward as true.
- Checkable: passes — It can be checked against evidence.
- Load-bearing: passes — The paper’s conclusions depend on it.
- Based: passes — The paper gives a reason why it holds.
A conclusion the paper draws from its own results — it cites no other source for it, so there is none to check. The quote shows it is in the paper.
In the paper
“The model outlined above predicts that increases in sustained anxiety should be paralleled by increases in BNST activation.”
§ Phasic and sustained fear in humans elicits distinct patterns of brain activity > Discussion > Summary and caveats
plaincorrelational- Asserted: passes — The authors put it forward as true.
- Checkable: passes — It can be checked against evidence.
- Load-bearing: passes — The paper’s conclusions depend on it.
- Based: passes — The paper gives a reason why it holds.
- It may state two separate claims as one. 39
- Probably not a substantial claim. 47
A result the paper reports from its own data — it cites no other source for it, so there is none to check. The quote shows it is in the paper.
In the paper
“Transient activation of the ventral amygdala was present but not statistically significant after correction.”
§ Phasic and sustained fear in humans elicits distinct patterns of brain activity > Results
plain- Asserted: passes — The authors put it forward as true.
- Checkable: passes — It can be checked against evidence.
- Load-bearing: unclear — It is unclear whether the paper’s conclusions depend on it.
- Based: passes — The paper gives a reason why it holds.
It may state two separate claims as one.
A result the paper reports from its own data — it cites no other source for it, so there is none to check. The quote shows it is in the paper.
In the paper
“We found no significant differences in sustained activity in the extended amygdala between unpredictable and predictable contexts, or predictable and no-shock contexts (Table 1).”
§ Phasic and sustained fear in humans elicits distinct patterns of brain activity > Results
plain- Asserted: passes — The authors put it forward as true.
- Checkable: passes — It can be checked against evidence.
- Load-bearing: passes — The paper’s conclusions depend on it.
- Based: passes — The paper gives a reason why it holds.
It may state two separate claims as one.
A result the paper reports from its own data — it cites no other source for it, so there is none to check. The quote shows it is in the paper.
In the paper
“and that the unpredictable context (Ucxt) [ANX: 7.3 (0.3); SCR: 0.33 (0.06)] was more anxiogenic than the no-shock context (Ncxt) [ANX: 0.7 (0.2); t17=18.5, P<0.001; SCR: 0.14 (0.03); t17=4.8, P<0.001] and predictable context (Pcxt) [ANX: 4.3 (0.5); t17=7.7, P<0.001; SCR: 0.26 (0.04); t17=1.8, P=0.09].”
§ Phasic and sustained fear in humans elicits distinct patterns of brain activity > Results
plaindirect- Asserted: passes — The authors put it forward as true.
- Checkable: passes — It can be checked against evidence.
- Load-bearing: unclear — It is unclear whether the paper’s conclusions depend on it.
- Based: passes — The paper gives a reason why it holds.
It may state two separate claims as one.
A result the paper reports from its own data — it cites no other source for it, so there is none to check. The quote shows it is in the paper.
In the paper
“Follow-up analyses indicated that increased transient activity in response to unpredictable threat was significant in the right dorsal amygdala but not the left (Fig. 5A; left, t17=0.58; P=0.57; right, t17=2.57; P=0.02).”
§ Phasic and sustained fear in humans elicits distinct patterns of brain activity > Results
hedgedcorrelational- Asserted: passes — The authors put it forward as true.
- Checkable: passes — It can be checked against evidence.
- Load-bearing: passes — The paper’s conclusions depend on it.
- Based: passes — The paper gives a reason why it holds.
It may state two separate claims as one.
A result the paper reports from its own data — it cites no other source for it, so there is none to check. The quote shows it is in the paper.
In the paper
“The predictable context also generated sustained increased activity in superior and middle frontal cortex, and sustained decreased activity in the cerebellum and medial orbital cortex relative to the no-shock context (Table 2).”
§ Phasic and sustained fear in humans elicits distinct patterns of brain activity > Results
plaindirect- Asserted: passes — The authors put it forward as true.
- Checkable: passes — It can be checked against evidence.
- Load-bearing: passes — The paper’s conclusions depend on it.
- Based: passes — The paper gives a reason why it holds.
It may state two separate claims as one.
A result the paper reports from its own data — it cites no other source for it, so there is none to check. The quote shows it is in the paper.
In the paper
“With this value temporarily removed from the analysis, the difference in sustained activity between Ucxt and Ncxt was significant in bilateral dorsal BNST (t16=2.27, P=0.037) and left dorsal BNST (left, t16=2.89, P=0.011; right, t16=1.44, P=0.17).”
§ Phasic and sustained fear in humans elicits distinct patterns of brain activity > Results
plain- Asserted: passes — The authors put it forward as true.
- Checkable: passes — It can be checked against evidence.
- Load-bearing: unclear — It is unclear whether the paper’s conclusions depend on it.
- Based: passes — The paper gives a reason why it holds.
It may state two separate claims as one.
A result the paper reports from its own data — it cites no other source for it, so there is none to check. The quote shows it is in the paper.
In the paper
“Subjects rated the shock level used in the study as moderately painful (mean=3.4; SD=0.4) based on a 1–5 scale (1, not at all; 3, moderately; 5, extremely).”
§ Phasic and sustained fear in humans elicits distinct patterns of brain activity > Materials and methods > Experimental procedures
plain- Asserted: passes — The authors put it forward as true.
- Checkable: passes — It can be checked against evidence.
- Load-bearing: fails — The paper’s conclusions may not depend on it.
- Based: passes — The paper gives a reason why it holds.
Probably not a substantial claim. The paper’s conclusions may not depend on it.
A result the paper reports from its own data — it cites no other source for it, so there is none to check. The quote shows it is in the paper.
In the paper
“The peak coordinates of the right BNST (9 0 10) activation were identical to those associated with the onset of unpredictable threat, but the peak coordinates of the left BNST (−6 0 6) activation were slightly more posteromedial and ventral compared to those associated with unpredictable threat onset (−9 2 10 ).”
§ Phasic and sustained fear in humans elicits distinct patterns of brain activity > Results
plain- Asserted: passes — The authors put it forward as true.
- Checkable: passes — It can be checked against evidence.
- Load-bearing: unclear — It is unclear whether the paper’s conclusions depend on it.
- Based: passes — The paper gives a reason why it holds.
It may state two separate claims as one.
A result the paper reports from its own data — it cites no other source for it, so there is none to check. The quote shows it is in the paper.
In the paper
“We also found sustained increased activity in anterior insula, frontal (superior, inferior, middle, frontopolar) and inferior parietal cortical regions, and the mid-cingulate (Table 2, Fig. 4C and D).”
§ Phasic and sustained fear in humans elicits distinct patterns of brain activity > Results
plaindirect- Asserted: passes — The authors put it forward as true.
- Checkable: passes — It can be checked against evidence.
- Load-bearing: passes — The paper’s conclusions depend on it.
- Based: passes — The paper gives a reason why it holds.
It may state two separate claims as one.
A result the paper reports from its own data — it cites no other source for it, so there is none to check. The quote shows it is in the paper.
In the paper
“As in the voxel-wise analyses, no significant differences were found in sustained activity in dorsal BNST between unpredictable and predictable contexts (Ucxt>Pcxt, t17=1.13, P=0.28), or predictable and no-shock contexts (Pcxt>Ncxt, t17=0.75, P=0.47).”
§ Phasic and sustained fear in humans elicits distinct patterns of brain activity > Results
plain- Asserted: passes — The authors put it forward as true.
- Checkable: passes — It can be checked against evidence.
- Load-bearing: passes — The paper’s conclusions depend on it.
- Based: passes — The paper gives a reason why it holds.
It may state two separate claims as one.
A result the paper reports from its own data — it cites no other source for it, so there is none to check. The quote shows it is in the paper.
In the paper
“Note that with the previously indentified “outlier” removed from the analysis, the linear trend in sustained activity across contexts was significant in bilateral dorsal BNST (F(1, 16)=5.17, P=0.037) and left dorsal BNST (left; F(1, 16)=8.37, P=0.010; right, F(1, 16)=2.07, P=0.169).”
§ Phasic and sustained fear in humans elicits distinct patterns of brain activity > Results
plaincorrelational- Asserted: passes — The authors put it forward as true.
- Checkable: passes — It can be checked against evidence.
- Load-bearing: passes — The paper’s conclusions depend on it.
- Based: passes — The paper gives a reason why it holds.
It may state two separate claims as one.
A result the paper reports from its own data — it cites no other source for it, so there is none to check. The quote shows it is in the paper.
In the paper
“Whereas both predictable and unpredictable threat contexts evoked transient activity in sACC, thereafter unpredictable threat contexts were associated with a greater sustained decrease in sACC activity.”
§ Phasic and sustained fear in humans elicits distinct patterns of brain activity > Discussion > Predictable and unpredictable threat are associated with different patterns of brain activation
plaincorrelational- Asserted: passes — The authors put it forward as true.
- Checkable: passes — It can be checked against evidence.
- Load-bearing: passes — The paper’s conclusions depend on it.
- Based: passes — The paper gives a reason why it holds.
It may state two separate claims as one.
None of the sources cited for this claim have been checked yet.
In the paper
“Rodent data suggest that phasic fear responses rely on the central nucleus of the amygdala (CeA), which in humans is located in the dorsal part of the amygdala (Amunts et al., 2005)”
§ Phasic and sustained fear in humans elicits distinct patterns of brain activity > Introduction
What the sources say
hedgedconditional- Asserted: passes — The authors put it forward as true.
- Checkable: passes — It can be checked against evidence.
- Load-bearing: passes — The paper’s conclusions depend on it.
- Based: passes — The paper gives a reason why it holds.
It may state two separate claims as one.
None of the sources cited for this claim have been checked yet.
In the paper
“a brief, discrete cue that predictably signals an imminent threat evokes a rapid apprehensive state (phasic fear) that diminishes quickly once the threat is terminated”
§ Phasic and sustained fear in humans elicits distinct patterns of brain activity > Introduction
What the sources say
plaindirect- Asserted: passes — The authors put it forward as true.
- Checkable: passes — It can be checked against evidence.
- Load-bearing: passes — The paper’s conclusions depend on it.
- Based: passes — The paper gives a reason why it holds.
It may state two separate claims as one.
None of the sources cited for this claim have been checked yet.
In the paper
“animal models of sustained fear posit that cortical inputs from the insula may also underlie sustained fear, possibly mediating cognitive components of anxious apprehension (Davis et al., 2010b).”
§ Phasic and sustained fear in humans elicits distinct patterns of brain activity > Introduction
What the sources say
- Not checked yetcites Davis et al., 2010b
- Not checked yetcites McDonald et al., 1999 source
hedgedconditional- Asserted: passes — The authors put it forward as true.
- Checkable: passes — It can be checked against evidence.
- Load-bearing: passes — The paper’s conclusions depend on it.
- Based: passes — The paper gives a reason why it holds.
Probably not a substantial claim.
None of the sources cited for this claim have been checked yet.
In the paper
“neuroimaging studies in humans have likewise implicated the amygdala in fear acquisition and extinction (Buchel et al., 1998; LaBar et al., 1998; Milad et al., 2007; Phelps et al., 2004)”
§ Phasic and sustained fear in humans elicits distinct patterns of brain activity > Introduction
What the sources say
plaincorrelational- Asserted: passes — The authors put it forward as true.
- Checkable: passes — It can be checked against evidence.
- Load-bearing: fails — The paper’s conclusions may not depend on it.
- Based: passes — The paper gives a reason why it holds.
Probably not a substantial claim. The paper’s conclusions may not depend on it.
In the paper
“However, Somerville et al. (2010) recently examined the role of the BNST in anxious-related vigilance.”
§ Phasic and sustained fear in humans elicits distinct patterns of brain activity > Introduction
What the sources say
- Not checked yetcites Somerville et al. (2010) source
plaincorrelational- Asserted: passes — The authors put it forward as true.
- Checkable: passes — It can be checked against evidence.
- Load-bearing: passes — The paper’s conclusions depend on it.
- Based: passes — The paper gives a reason why it holds.
Probably not a substantial claim.
In the paper
“Rodent data suggest that highly related but partially distinct functional neuroanatomical networks may underlie phasic and sustained fear (Davis et al., 2010b).”
§ Phasic and sustained fear in humans elicits distinct patterns of brain activity > Introduction
What the sources say
- Not checked yetcites Davis et al., 2010b
hedgedconditional- Asserted: passes — The authors put it forward as true.
- Checkable: passes — It can be checked against evidence.
- Load-bearing: passes — The paper’s conclusions depend on it.
- Based: passes — The paper gives a reason why it holds.
Probably not a substantial claim.
None of the sources cited for this claim have been checked yet.
In the paper
“We tested these predictions using a well-validated instructed threat procedure (Davis et al., 2010b; Grillon et al., 2004), and neuroimaging methods that assured good signal detection of transient cue- and context-related responses, as well as sustained context-related responses in the basal forebrain.”
§ Phasic and sustained fear in humans elicits distinct patterns of brain activity > Introduction
What the sources say
- Not checked yetcites Davis et al., 2010b
- Not checked yetcites Grillon et al., 2004 source
boosted- Asserted: passes — The authors put it forward as true.
- Checkable: passes — It can be checked against evidence.
- Load-bearing: passes — The paper’s conclusions depend on it.
- Based: passes — The paper gives a reason why it holds.
It may state two separate claims as one.
In the paper
“sustained fear responses are dependent on the bed nucleus of the stria terminalis (BNST), which is located in the ventromedial basal forebrain and receives input from the CeA and the more ventrally located basolateral amygdala complex (BLC) (Walker and Davis, 2008)”
§ Phasic and sustained fear in humans elicits distinct patterns of brain activity > Introduction
What the sources say
- Not checked yetcites Walker and Davis, 2008 source
plaindirect- Asserted: passes — The authors put it forward as true.
- Checkable: passes — It can be checked against evidence.
- Load-bearing: passes — The paper’s conclusions depend on it.
- Based: passes — The paper gives a reason why it holds.
It may state two separate claims as one.
In the paper
“Hasler et al. (2007) found that a visual threat cue increased cerebral blood flow in the left amygdala relative to a comparable safe cue.”
§ Phasic and sustained fear in humans elicits distinct patterns of brain activity > Introduction
What the sources say
- Not checked yetcites Hasler et al. (2007) source
plaindirect- Asserted: passes — The authors put it forward as true.
- Checkable: passes — It can be checked against evidence.
- Load-bearing: fails — The paper’s conclusions may not depend on it.
- Based: passes — The paper gives a reason why it holds.
Probably not a substantial claim. The paper’s conclusions may not depend on it.
In the paper
“Because the CeA and BNST project to the same neural mediators of fear symptoms, each of these components of the extended amygdala are capable of generating defensive responses (Davis and Whalen, 2001).”
§ Phasic and sustained fear in humans elicits distinct patterns of brain activity > Introduction
What the sources say
- Not checked yetcites Davis and Whalen, 2001 source
plaindirect- Asserted: passes — The authors put it forward as true.
- Checkable: passes — It can be checked against evidence.
- Load-bearing: passes — The paper’s conclusions depend on it.
- Based: passes — The paper gives a reason why it holds.
Probably not a substantial claim. It may state two separate claims as one.
In the paper
“an area that also has strong projections to medial prefrontal cortical regions associated with the regulation of emotions and visceral reactions (Price and Drevets, 2010).”
§ Phasic and sustained fear in humans elicits distinct patterns of brain activity > Introduction
What the sources say
- Not checked yetcites Price and Drevets, 2010 source
boostedcorrelational- Asserted: passes — The authors put it forward as true.
- Checkable: passes — It can be checked against evidence.
- Load-bearing: fails — The paper’s conclusions may not depend on it.
- Based: passes — The paper gives a reason why it holds.
Probably not a substantial claim. The paper’s conclusions may not depend on it.
In the paper
“Though no shocks were ever administered, the threat cue evoked enhanced arousal and fear as indexed by skin conductance, and relative to the safe cue, produced a rapid and short-lasting activation in left dorsal amygdala.”
§ Phasic and sustained fear in humans elicits distinct patterns of brain activity > Introduction
What the sources say
- Not checked yetcites Phelps et al. (2001) source
plaindirect- Asserted: passes — The authors put it forward as true.
- Checkable: passes — It can be checked against evidence.
- Load-bearing: passes — The paper’s conclusions depend on it.
- Based: passes — The paper gives a reason why it holds.
It may state two separate claims as one.
In the paper
“compared to generic cost functionals, provides superior spatial alignment between T2*- and T1-weighted images in brain structures near the ventricles (Saad et al., 2009).”
§ Phasic and sustained fear in humans elicits distinct patterns of brain activity > Materials and methods > Experimental procedures
What the sources say
- Not checked yetcites Saad et al., 2009 source
plaindirect- Asserted: passes — The authors put it forward as true.
- Checkable: passes — It can be checked against evidence.
- Load-bearing: fails — The paper’s conclusions may not depend on it.
- Based: passes — The paper gives a reason why it holds.
Probably not a substantial claim. The paper’s conclusions may not depend on it.
None of the sources cited for this claim have been checked yet.
In the paper
“This allowed us to conduct whole-brain fMRI at roughly 4 times higher spatial resolution (1.7 × 1.7 × 3.5 mm3) and still have enough sensitivity to detect BOLD signal changes (Bodurka et al., 2007).”
§ Phasic and sustained fear in humans elicits distinct patterns of brain activity > Introduction
What the sources say
plaindirect- Asserted: passes — The authors put it forward as true.
- Checkable: passes — It can be checked against evidence.
- Load-bearing: passes — The paper’s conclusions depend on it.
- Based: passes — The paper gives a reason why it holds.
It may state two separate claims as one.
In the paper
“Because animal models of sustained fear hypothesize that a part of the CeA different from that involved in phasic fear may be transiently involved in initiating sustained fear (Davis et al., 2010b), we tested for a transient fear response to unpredictable threat in bilateral dorsal amygdala.”
§ Phasic and sustained fear in humans elicits distinct patterns of brain activity > Results
What the sources say
- Not checked yetcites Davis et al., 2010b
hedgedconditional- Asserted: fails — The authors may not put it forward as true.
- Checkable: passes — It can be checked against evidence.
- Load-bearing: passes — The paper’s conclusions depend on it.
- Based: passes — The paper gives a reason why it holds.
Probably not a substantial claim. The authors may not put it forward as true.
In the paper
“A log transformation (log [1 + SCR]) was performed to normalize the distribution, and the magnitudes were range corrected (SCR/SCRmax) for each subject to attain statistical normality and to reduce error variance (Lykken and Venables, 1971).”
§ Phasic and sustained fear in humans elicits distinct patterns of brain activity > Materials and methods > Experimental procedures
What the sources say
- Not checked yetcites Lykken and Venables, 1971
plaindirect- Asserted: passes — The authors put it forward as true.
- Checkable: passes — It can be checked against evidence.
- Load-bearing: fails — The paper’s conclusions may not depend on it.
- Based: passes — The paper gives a reason why it holds.
Probably not a substantial claim. The paper’s conclusions may not depend on it. It may state two separate claims as one.
In the paper
“statistical conclusions concerning the extended amygdala were based on small volume correction (SVC) for multiple tests (Worsley et al., 1996).”
§ Phasic and sustained fear in humans elicits distinct patterns of brain activity > Materials and methods > Data analysis
What the sources say
- Not checked yetcites Worsley et al., 1996 source
plain- Asserted: passes — The authors put it forward as true.
- Checkable: passes — It can be checked against evidence.
- Load-bearing: passes — The paper’s conclusions depend on it.
- Based: passes — The paper gives a reason why it holds.
Probably not a substantial claim.
What the paper did — it cites no source for this, so there is none to check. The quote shows it is in the paper.
In the paper
“Anatomical delineation of the BNST was performed using a standardized protocol by a trained research assistant blind to the subjects' identity and adherence to the protocol was assessed by the first author.”
§ Phasic and sustained fear in humans elicits distinct patterns of brain activity > Materials and methods > Data analysis
plain- Asserted: passes — The authors put it forward as true.
- Checkable: passes — It can be checked against evidence.
- Load-bearing: fails — The paper’s conclusions may not depend on it.
- Based: passes — The paper gives a reason why it holds.
Probably not a substantial claim. The paper’s conclusions may not depend on it. It may state two separate claims as one.
A conclusion the paper draws from its own results — it cites no other source for it, so there is none to check. The quote shows it is in the paper.
In the paper
“These results also confirm that under predictable threat, the cue elicited a phasic apprehensive state that was greater than that elicited by other cues, and greater than the predictable context in the absence of a cue.”
§ Phasic and sustained fear in humans elicits distinct patterns of brain activity > Results
boosteddirect- Asserted: passes — The authors put it forward as true.
- Checkable: passes — It can be checked against evidence.
- Load-bearing: passes — The paper’s conclusions depend on it.
- Based: passes — The paper gives a reason why it holds.
It may state two separate claims as one.
In the paper
“Therefore, the absence of cues in Pcxt may have signaled relative safety; however, unlike Ncxt, Pcxt was not a safe context in an absolute sense because Pcxt was associated with cue-related shock, much like the context in background contextual conditioning studies (Calandreau et al., 2005).”
§ Phasic and sustained fear in humans elicits distinct patterns of brain activity > Materials and methods > Experimental procedures
What the sources say
- Not checked yetcites Calandreau et al., 2005 source
hedgedcorrelational- Asserted: passes — The authors put it forward as true.
- Checkable: passes — It can be checked against evidence.
- Load-bearing: passes — The paper’s conclusions depend on it.
- Based: passes — The paper gives a reason why it holds.
It may state two separate claims as one.
What the paper did — it cites no source for this, so there is none to check. The quote shows it is in the paper.
In the paper
“The above correction procedures resulted in a minimum cluster size threshold of 40 mm3 for the extended amygdala, and a minimum cluster size threshold of 120 mm3 for all other brain regions.”
§ Phasic and sustained fear in humans elicits distinct patterns of brain activity > Materials and methods > Data analysis
plain- Asserted: passes — The authors put it forward as true.
- Checkable: passes — It can be checked against evidence.
- Load-bearing: passes — The paper’s conclusions depend on it.
- Based: passes — The paper gives a reason why it holds.
Probably not a substantial claim. It may state two separate claims as one.
What the paper did — it cites no source for this, so there is none to check. The quote shows it is in the paper.
In the paper
“To optimize our ability to detect fMRI signal changes from small brain structures and to avoid any reduction in spatial resolution, we did not spatially filter or smooth the EPI data.”
§ Phasic and sustained fear in humans elicits distinct patterns of brain activity > Materials and methods > Experimental procedures
plain- Asserted: passes — The authors put it forward as true.
- Checkable: passes — It can be checked against evidence.
- Load-bearing: passes — The paper’s conclusions depend on it.
- Based: passes — The paper gives a reason why it holds.
Probably not a substantial claim.
What the paper did — it cites no source for this, so there is none to check. The quote shows it is in the paper.
In the paper
“Since entry into each context occurred at several locations within the VR environment, it is unlikely that the onset of a context would be associated with any specific cue within a context.”
§ Phasic and sustained fear in humans elicits distinct patterns of brain activity > Materials and methods > Experimental procedures
hedgedcorrelational- Asserted: passes — The authors put it forward as true.
- Checkable: passes — It can be checked against evidence.
- Load-bearing: passes — The paper’s conclusions depend on it.
- Based: passes — The paper gives a reason why it holds.
Probably not a substantial claim.
In the paper
“Imaging at a higher spatial resolution can decrease partial volume effects but can come at the cost of a reduced MRI signal-to-noise ratio (SNR) (Edelstein et al., 1986).”
§ Phasic and sustained fear in humans elicits distinct patterns of brain activity > Introduction
What the sources say
- Not checked yetcites Edelstein et al., 1986 source
plaindirect- Asserted: passes — The authors put it forward as true.
- Checkable: passes — It can be checked against evidence.
- Load-bearing: passes — The paper’s conclusions depend on it.
- Based: passes — The paper gives a reason why it holds.
It may state two separate claims as one.
What the paper did — it cites no source for this, so there is none to check. The quote shows it is in the paper.
In the paper
“Retrospective fear ratings obtained immediately following scanning were used to confirm understanding of the threat instructions.”
§ Phasic and sustained fear in humans elicits distinct patterns of brain activity > Materials and methods > Experimental procedures
plain- Asserted: passes — The authors put it forward as true.
- Checkable: passes — It can be checked against evidence.
- Load-bearing: fails — The paper’s conclusions may not depend on it.
- Based: passes — The paper gives a reason why it holds.
Probably not a substantial claim. The paper’s conclusions may not depend on it.
None of the sources cited for this claim have been checked yet.
In the paper
“Previous studies of instructed fear using simple threat cues (e.g., colored squares) have associated phasic fear responses with a left hemisphere bias (Phelps et al., 2001; Funayama et al., 2001; Hasler et al., 2007).”
§ Phasic and sustained fear in humans elicits distinct patterns of brain activity > Results
What the sources say
plaincorrelational- Asserted: passes — The authors put it forward as true.
- Checkable: passes — It can be checked against evidence.
- Load-bearing: fails — The paper’s conclusions may not depend on it.
- Based: passes — The paper gives a reason why it holds.
Probably not a substantial claim. The paper’s conclusions may not depend on it.
What the paper did — it cites no source for this, so there is none to check. The quote shows it is in the paper.
In the paper
“Besides the 18 subjects included in the study, 4 were excluded because of excessive shock-related head motion (n=1), failure of the shock delivery system (n=2), and scanner malfunction (n=1).”
§ Phasic and sustained fear in humans elicits distinct patterns of brain activity > Materials and methods > Subjects
plainn = 4- Asserted: passes — The authors put it forward as true.
- Checkable: passes — It can be checked against evidence.
- Load-bearing: fails — The paper’s conclusions may not depend on it.
- Based: passes — The paper gives a reason why it holds.
Probably not a substantial claim. The paper’s conclusions may not depend on it.
What the paper did — it cites no source for this, so there is none to check. The quote shows it is in the paper.
In the paper
“All subjects in the study exhibited minimal head motion during imaging (mean= 2.1 mm, SD=1.6).”
§ Phasic and sustained fear in humans elicits distinct patterns of brain activity > Materials and methods > Subjects
plainn = 18- Asserted: passes — The authors put it forward as true.
- Checkable: passes — It can be checked against evidence.
- Load-bearing: fails — The paper’s conclusions may not depend on it.
- Based: passes — The paper gives a reason why it holds.
Probably not a substantial claim. The paper’s conclusions may not depend on it.
In the paper
“Previous research in our laboratory has shown that similarly constructed VR stimuli are effective for studying context manipulations in the MRI environment (Alvarez et al., 2008).”
§ Phasic and sustained fear in humans elicits distinct patterns of brain activity > Materials and methods > Experimental procedures
What the sources say
- Not checked yetcites Alvarez et al., 2008 source
plaindirect- Asserted: passes — The authors put it forward as true.
- Checkable: passes — It can be checked against evidence.
- Load-bearing: fails — The paper’s conclusions may not depend on it.
- Based: passes — The paper gives a reason why it holds.
Probably not a substantial claim. The paper’s conclusions may not depend on it.
What the paper did — it cites no source for this, so there is none to check. The quote shows it is in the paper.
In the paper
“To ensure that subjects understood the threat procedure, they were exposed to the VR contexts and tone prior to the study, and were required to paraphrase the shock and no-shock contingencies.”
§ Phasic and sustained fear in humans elicits distinct patterns of brain activity > Materials and methods > Experimental procedures
plain- Asserted: passes — The authors put it forward as true.
- Checkable: passes — It can be checked against evidence.
- Load-bearing: passes — The paper’s conclusions depend on it.
- Based: passes — The paper gives a reason why it holds.
Probably not a substantial claim. It may state two separate claims as one.
What the paper did — it cites no source for this, so there is none to check. The quote shows it is in the paper.
In the paper
“The quality of coregistration between EPI and anatomical datasets was visually verified for each subject.”
§ Phasic and sustained fear in humans elicits distinct patterns of brain activity > Materials and methods > Experimental procedures
plain- Asserted: passes — The authors put it forward as true.
- Checkable: passes — It can be checked against evidence.
- Load-bearing: passes — The paper’s conclusions depend on it.
- Based: passes — The paper gives a reason why it holds.
Probably not a substantial claim.
What the paper did — it cites no source for this, so there is none to check. The quote shows it is in the paper.
In the paper
“Context assignment was reversed for the remaining subjects so as to counterbalance across subjects which environment was associated with predictable and unpredictable shock; the virtual restaurant was always the no-shock context.”
§ Phasic and sustained fear in humans elicits distinct patterns of brain activity > Materials and methods > Experimental procedures
plaincorrelational- Asserted: passes — The authors put it forward as true.
- Checkable: passes — It can be checked against evidence.
- Load-bearing: passes — The paper’s conclusions depend on it.
- Based: passes — The paper gives a reason why it holds.
Probably not a substantial claim. It may state two separate claims as one.
What the paper did — it cites no source for this, so there is none to check. The quote shows it is in the paper.
In the paper
“SCRs to cue and context onset that were contaminated by a shock, or an early cue in the case of a context, were omitted from analyses, assuring that the SCR data were not affected by nuisance factors.”
§ Phasic and sustained fear in humans elicits distinct patterns of brain activity > Materials and methods > Experimental procedures
plain- Asserted: passes — The authors put it forward as true.
- Checkable: passes — It can be checked against evidence.
- Load-bearing: fails — The paper’s conclusions may not depend on it.
- Based: passes — The paper gives a reason why it holds.
Probably not a substantial claim. The paper’s conclusions may not depend on it. It may state two separate claims as one.
A conclusion the paper draws from its own results — it cites no other source for it, so there is none to check. The quote shows it is in the paper.
In the paper
“these results provide evidence that phasic and sustained fear in humans may manifest similar signs of distress, but appear to be associated with different patterns of neural activity in the human basal forebrain.”
§ Phasic and sustained fear in humans elicits distinct patterns of brain activity > Abstract
hedgedcorrelational- Asserted: passes — The authors put it forward as true.
- Checkable: passes — It can be checked against evidence.
- Load-bearing: passes — The paper’s conclusions depend on it.
- Based: passes — The paper gives a reason why it holds.
It may state two separate claims as one.
A conclusion the paper draws from its own results — it cites no other source for it, so there is none to check. The quote shows it is in the paper.
In the paper
“Because subjects in the present study were forewarned of the threat associated with each cue, subjects encountering a predictable cue would be expected to engage in conscious appraisal of imminent threat.”
§ Phasic and sustained fear in humans elicits distinct patterns of brain activity > Discussion > Predictable and unpredictable threat are associated with different patterns of brain activation
hedgedconditional- Asserted: passes — The authors put it forward as true.
- Checkable: passes — It can be checked against evidence.
- Load-bearing: passes — The paper’s conclusions depend on it.
- Based: passes — The paper gives a reason why it holds.
Probably not a substantial claim.
None of the sources cited for this claim have been checked yet.
In the paper
“It is also consistent with previous studies showing a rapid reduction in amygdala activation over time in fear conditioning (Buchel et al., 1998; LaBar et al., 1998) and threat of shock (Phelps et al., 2001).”
§ Phasic and sustained fear in humans elicits distinct patterns of brain activity > Discussion > Predictable and unpredictable threat are associated with different patterns of brain activation
What the sources say
plaindirect- Asserted: passes — The authors put it forward as true.
- Checkable: passes — It can be checked against evidence.
- Load-bearing: passes — The paper’s conclusions depend on it.
- Based: passes — The paper gives a reason why it holds.
Probably not a substantial claim.
None of the sources cited for this claim have been checked yet.
In the paper
“This result is consistent with studies in rodents, primates, and humans that demonstrate a role for the CeA in mediating behavioral and physiological responses evoked by conditioned and unconditioned stimuli including contexts (Davis and Whalen, 2001; Kalin et al., 2004; LeDoux, 2000).”
§ Phasic and sustained fear in humans elicits distinct patterns of brain activity > Discussion > Predictable and unpredictable threat are associated with different patterns of brain activation
What the sources say
boosteddirect- Asserted: passes — The authors put it forward as true.
- Checkable: passes — It can be checked against evidence.
- Load-bearing: passes — The paper’s conclusions depend on it.
- Based: passes — The paper gives a reason why it holds.
Probably not a substantial claim.
A conclusion the paper draws from its own results — it cites no other source for it, so there is none to check. The quote shows it is in the paper.
In the paper
“Hence, any conclusions regarding fMRI signals in the CeA must remain tentative.”
§ Phasic and sustained fear in humans elicits distinct patterns of brain activity > Discussion > Predictable and unpredictable threat are associated with different patterns of brain activation
hedged- Asserted: passes — The authors put it forward as true.
- Checkable: fails — It may be too vague to check against evidence.
- Load-bearing: passes — The paper’s conclusions depend on it.
- Based: passes — The paper gives a reason why it holds.
Probably not a substantial claim. It may be too vague to check against evidence.
None of the sources cited for this claim have been checked yet.
In the paper
“This conjecture is supported by research indicating that the BLC is well positioned to receive incoming sensory information concerning threats in the environment, and to convey this information to output areas including the CeA and BNST (Amaral et al., 1992; Dong et al., 2001).”
§ Phasic and sustained fear in humans elicits distinct patterns of brain activity > Discussion > Predictable and unpredictable threat are associated with different patterns of brain activation
What the sources say
- Not checked yetcites Amaral et al., 1992
- Not checked yetcites Dong et al., 2001 source
hedgeddirect- Asserted: passes — The authors put it forward as true.
- Checkable: passes — It can be checked against evidence.
- Load-bearing: passes — The paper’s conclusions depend on it.
- Based: passes — The paper gives a reason why it holds.
It may state two separate claims as one.
A conclusion the paper draws from its own results — it cites no other source for it, so there is none to check. The quote shows it is in the paper.
In the paper
“This null finding is perplexing considering that ROIs typically increase the power to detect an effect.”
§ Phasic and sustained fear in humans elicits distinct patterns of brain activity > Discussion > Predictable and unpredictable threat are associated with different patterns of brain activation
plain- Asserted: passes — The authors put it forward as true.
- Checkable: passes — It can be checked against evidence.
- Load-bearing: fails — The paper’s conclusions may not depend on it.
- Based: passes — The paper gives a reason why it holds.
Probably not a substantial claim. The paper’s conclusions may not depend on it.
In the paper
“The posterior cingulate and precuneus are part of a cortical midline network associated with self-referential processing in the spatial domain (Northoff et al., 2006)”
§ Phasic and sustained fear in humans elicits distinct patterns of brain activity > Discussion > Predictable and unpredictable threat are associated with different patterns of brain activation
What the sources say
- Not checked yetcites Northoff et al., 2006 source
plaincorrelational- Asserted: passes — The authors put it forward as true.
- Checkable: passes — It can be checked against evidence.
- Load-bearing: passes — The paper’s conclusions depend on it.
- Based: passes — The paper gives a reason why it holds.
Probably not a substantial claim.
In the paper
“It has been suggested that anterior insula might mediate cognitive aspects of worry (Walker and Davis, 2008).”
§ Phasic and sustained fear in humans elicits distinct patterns of brain activity > Discussion > Predictable and unpredictable threat are associated with different patterns of brain activation
What the sources say
- Not checked yetcites Walker and Davis, 2008 source
hedgedconditional- Asserted: passes — The authors put it forward as true.
- Checkable: passes — It can be checked against evidence.
- Load-bearing: fails — The paper’s conclusions may not depend on it.
- Based: passes — The paper gives a reason why it holds.
Probably not a substantial claim. The paper’s conclusions may not depend on it.
In the paper
“According to this model, cortical and subcortical input converge on the basolateral amygdala and lateral CeA, which in turn project to the lateral BNST and trigger a cascade of neurochemical release, resulting in a relatively long-lasting apprehensive state.”
§ Phasic and sustained fear in humans elicits distinct patterns of brain activity > Discussion > Predictable and unpredictable threat are associated with different patterns of brain activation
What the sources say
- Not checked yetcites Davis et al., 2010b
plaindirect- Asserted: passes — The authors put it forward as true.
- Checkable: passes — It can be checked against evidence.
- Load-bearing: passes — The paper’s conclusions depend on it.
- Based: passes — The paper gives a reason why it holds.
Probably not a substantial claim. It may state two separate claims as one.
In the paper
“The supracapsular BNST is a small basal forebrain structure that is relatively well developed in humans (Strenge et al., 1977).”
§ Phasic and sustained fear in humans elicits distinct patterns of brain activity > Discussion > Predictable and unpredictable threat are associated with different patterns of brain activation
What the sources say
- Not checked yetcites Strenge et al., 1977
plain- Asserted: passes — The authors put it forward as true.
- Checkable: passes — It can be checked against evidence.
- Load-bearing: fails — The paper’s conclusions may not depend on it.
- Based: passes — The paper gives a reason why it holds.
Probably not a substantial claim. The paper’s conclusions may not depend on it. It may state two separate claims as one.
In the paper
“A comparable area of the BNST has been associated with hypervigilant threat monitoring (Somerville et al., 2010).”
§ Phasic and sustained fear in humans elicits distinct patterns of brain activity > Discussion > Predictable and unpredictable threat are associated with different patterns of brain activation
What the sources say
- Not checked yetcites Somerville et al., 2010 source
plaincorrelational- Asserted: passes — The authors put it forward as true.
- Checkable: passes — It can be checked against evidence.
- Load-bearing: fails — The paper’s conclusions may not depend on it.
- Based: passes — The paper gives a reason why it holds.
Probably not a substantial claim. The paper’s conclusions may not depend on it.
A conclusion the paper draws from its own results — it cites no other source for it, so there is none to check. The quote shows it is in the paper.
In the paper
“suggesting that imminent threats likely evoke greater phasic fear than temporally unpredictable threats, but the latter may give rise to greater vigilance.”
§ Phasic and sustained fear in humans elicits distinct patterns of brain activity > Discussion > Predictable and unpredictable threat are associated with different patterns of brain activation
hedgedconditional- Asserted: passes — The authors put it forward as true.
- Checkable: passes — It can be checked against evidence.
- Load-bearing: passes — The paper’s conclusions depend on it.
- Based: passes — The paper gives a reason why it holds.
It may state two separate claims as one.
In the paper
“Because enhanced activity in the BNST occurred during an anticipatory period of 10–28 s, Straube et al. (2007) interpreted their finding as evidence for BNST involvement in anticipatory anxiety.”
§ Phasic and sustained fear in humans elicits distinct patterns of brain activity > Discussion > Predictable and unpredictable threat are associated with different patterns of brain activation
What the sources say
- Not checked yetcites Straube et al. (2007) source
plaincorrelational- Asserted: passes — The authors put it forward as true.
- Checkable: passes — It can be checked against evidence.
- Load-bearing: fails — The paper’s conclusions may not depend on it.
- Based: passes — The paper gives a reason why it holds.
Probably not a substantial claim. The paper’s conclusions may not depend on it.
In the paper
“This proposal is compatible with a recently described neural model of sustained fear (Davis et al., 2010b).”
§ Phasic and sustained fear in humans elicits distinct patterns of brain activity > Discussion > Predictable and unpredictable threat are associated with different patterns of brain activation
What the sources say
- Not checked yetcites Davis et al., 2010b
plain- Asserted: passes — The authors put it forward as true.
- Checkable: passes — It can be checked against evidence.
- Load-bearing: fails — The paper’s conclusions may not depend on it.
- Based: passes — The paper gives a reason why it holds.
Probably not a substantial claim. The paper’s conclusions may not depend on it.
In the paper
“The supracapsular and lateral BNST share a similar cellular and neurochemical makeup, and the supracapsular BNST merges into and shares afferent and efferent pathways with the lateral BNST (Shammah-Lagnado et al., 2000)”
§ Phasic and sustained fear in humans elicits distinct patterns of brain activity > Discussion > Predictable and unpredictable threat are associated with different patterns of brain activation
What the sources say
- Not checked yetcites Shammah-Lagnado et al., 2000 source
plaincorrelational- Asserted: passes — The authors put it forward as true.
- Checkable: passes — It can be checked against evidence.
- Load-bearing: passes — The paper’s conclusions depend on it.
- Based: passes — The paper gives a reason why it holds.
It may state two separate claims as one.
In the paper
“Conscious appraisal processes have been hypothesized to involve a neural circuit including the dmPFC/dACC (Mechias et al., 2010).”
§ Phasic and sustained fear in humans elicits distinct patterns of brain activity > Discussion > Predictable and unpredictable threat are associated with different patterns of brain activation
What the sources say
- Not checked yetcites Mechias et al., 2010 source
hedgedcorrelational- Asserted: passes — The authors put it forward as true.
- Checkable: passes — It can be checked against evidence.
- Load-bearing: passes — The paper’s conclusions depend on it.
- Based: passes — The paper gives a reason why it holds.
Probably not a substantial claim.
A conclusion the paper draws from its own results — it cites no other source for it, so there is none to check. The quote shows it is in the paper.
In the paper
“This may account for the dynamic pattern of activation observed in sACC in response to unpredictable threat.”
§ Phasic and sustained fear in humans elicits distinct patterns of brain activity > Discussion > Predictable and unpredictable threat are associated with different patterns of brain activation
hedgedconditional- Asserted: passes — The authors put it forward as true.
- Checkable: passes — It can be checked against evidence.
- Load-bearing: passes — The paper’s conclusions depend on it.
- Based: passes — The paper gives a reason why it holds.
Probably not a substantial claim.
A conclusion the paper draws from its own results — it cites no other source for it, so there is none to check. The quote shows it is in the paper.
In the paper
“Contexts that signal a longer duration threat initially elicit transient activity in the ventral amygdala/hippocampus and dorsal amygdala, with the former structures possibly being responsible for activation of the latter.”
§ Phasic and sustained fear in humans elicits distinct patterns of brain activity > Discussion > Summary and caveats
hedgedconditional- Asserted: passes — The authors put it forward as true.
- Checkable: passes — It can be checked against evidence.
- Load-bearing: passes — The paper’s conclusions depend on it.
- Based: passes — The paper gives a reason why it holds.
It may state two separate claims as one.
In the paper
“Subgenual anterior cingulate cortex (sACC) is central to the medial prefrontal network that has been associated with mood and anxiety dysregulation, and has been implicated in the regulation of visceral responses during stress and anxiety (Price and Drevets, 2010).”
§ Phasic and sustained fear in humans elicits distinct patterns of brain activity > Discussion > Predictable and unpredictable threat are associated with different patterns of brain activation
What the sources say
- Not checked yetcites Price and Drevets, 2010 source
plaincorrelational- Asserted: passes — The authors put it forward as true.
- Checkable: passes — It can be checked against evidence.
- Load-bearing: passes — The paper’s conclusions depend on it.
- Based: passes — The paper gives a reason why it holds.
Probably not a substantial claim. It may state two separate claims as one.
A conclusion the paper draws from its own results — it cites no other source for it, so there is none to check. The quote shows it is in the paper.
In the paper
“In addition, we suggest that long-duration states of anxiety engender hypervigilance mediated by frontoparietal networks, and modulation of visceral function via mechanisms within anterior insula, pACC and sACC.”
§ Phasic and sustained fear in humans elicits distinct patterns of brain activity > Discussion > Summary and caveats
hedgeddirect- Asserted: passes — The authors put it forward as true.
- Checkable: passes — It can be checked against evidence.
- Load-bearing: passes — The paper’s conclusions depend on it.
- Based: passes — The paper gives a reason why it holds.
It may state two separate claims as one.
In the paper
“The finding that unpredictable threat induced sustained activity of frontoparietal areas involved in sustained attention (Pardo et al., 1991), is consistent with previous neuroimaging studies linking unpredictable threat to hypervigilance (Carlsson et al., 2006; Hasler et al., 2007).”
§ Phasic and sustained fear in humans elicits distinct patterns of brain activity > Discussion > Predictable and unpredictable threat are associated with different patterns of brain activation
What the sources say
- Not checked yetcites Pardo et al., 1991 source
plaincorrelational- Asserted: passes — The authors put it forward as true.
- Checkable: passes — It can be checked against evidence.
- Load-bearing: passes — The paper’s conclusions depend on it.
- Based: passes — The paper gives a reason why it holds.
Probably not a substantial claim.
In the paper
“In the present study, unpredictable threat contexts compared to predictable threat contexts elicited greater transient activity in pregenual anterior cingulate cortex (pACC), a cingulate subregion that differs from sACC in its cytological and transmitter receptor architecture (Palomero-Gallagher, et al., 2008).”
§ Phasic and sustained fear in humans elicits distinct patterns of brain activity > Discussion > Predictable and unpredictable threat are associated with different patterns of brain activation
What the sources say
- Not checked yetcites Palomero-Gallagher, et al., 2008 source
plain- Asserted: passes — The authors put it forward as true.
- Checkable: passes — It can be checked against evidence.
- Load-bearing: fails — The paper’s conclusions may not depend on it.
- Based: passes — The paper gives a reason why it holds.
Probably not a substantial claim. The paper’s conclusions may not depend on it.
In the paper
“Although the medial prefrontal network was not the focus of this study, the activations observed in this network are consistent with previous imaging studies implicating medial prefrontal cortex in distal threat (Mobbs et al., 2009), and suggest that contextually induced sustained anxiety may involve complex oscillations in neural activity in key prefrontal regions such as pACC and sACC.”
§ Phasic and sustained fear in humans elicits distinct patterns of brain activity > Discussion > Predictable and unpredictable threat are associated with different patterns of brain activation
What the sources say
- Not checked yetcites Mobbs et al., 2009 source
hedgedconditional- Asserted: passes — The authors put it forward as true.
- Checkable: passes — It can be checked against evidence.
- Load-bearing: unclear — It is unclear whether the paper’s conclusions depend on it.
- Based: passes — The paper gives a reason why it holds.
It may state two separate claims as one.
In the paper
“Previous neuroimaging findings indicating that contextual fear conditioning elicits sustained activity in anterior insula are consistent with this interpretation (Alvarez et al., 2008).”
§ Phasic and sustained fear in humans elicits distinct patterns of brain activity > Discussion > Predictable and unpredictable threat are associated with different patterns of brain activation
What the sources say
- Not checked yetcites Alvarez et al., 2008 source
hedgeddirect- Asserted: passes — The authors put it forward as true.
- Checkable: passes — It can be checked against evidence.
- Load-bearing: fails — The paper’s conclusions may not depend on it.
- Based: passes — The paper gives a reason why it holds.
Probably not a substantial claim. The paper’s conclusions may not depend on it.
What the paper did — it cites no source for this, so there is none to check. The quote shows it is in the paper.
In the paper
“Notwithstanding the limitations of this investigation, the present study took advantage of recent advances in fMRI data acquisition and processing, allowing us to conduct whole-brain fMRI at about 4 times higher spatial resolution than typical fMRI studies, yet still have sufficient sensitivity to detect small signal changes in the basal forebrain.”
§ Phasic and sustained fear in humans elicits distinct patterns of brain activity > Discussion > Summary and caveats
plain- Asserted: passes — The authors put it forward as true.
- Checkable: passes — It can be checked against evidence.
- Load-bearing: passes — The paper’s conclusions depend on it.
- Based: passes — The paper gives a reason why it holds.
It may state two separate claims as one.
In the paper
“Clinical studies indicate that metabolism in sACC is elevated in the depressed phase relative to the remitted phase of the same patients with major depressive disorder (Drevets et al., 2008).”
§ Phasic and sustained fear in humans elicits distinct patterns of brain activity > Discussion > Predictable and unpredictable threat are associated with different patterns of brain activation
What the sources say
- Not checked yetcites Drevets et al., 2008 source
hedgedcorrelational- Asserted: passes — The authors put it forward as true.
- Checkable: passes — It can be checked against evidence.
- Load-bearing: passes — The paper’s conclusions depend on it.
- Based: passes — The paper gives a reason why it holds.
Probably not a substantial claim.
A conclusion the paper draws from its own results — it cites no other source for it, so there is none to check. The quote shows it is in the paper.
In the paper
“To sum up, the present study suggests that predictable and unpredictable threats can induce phasic and sustained fear in humans, and that these apprehensive states elicit distinct patterns of activation in the basal forebrain including, potentially, the extended amygdala.”
§ Phasic and sustained fear in humans elicits distinct patterns of brain activity > Discussion > Summary and caveats
hedgeddirect- Asserted: passes — The authors put it forward as true.
- Checkable: passes — It can be checked against evidence.
- Load-bearing: passes — The paper’s conclusions depend on it.
- Based: passes — The paper gives a reason why it holds.
It may state two separate claims as one.
None of the sources cited for this claim have been checked yet.
In the paper
“The finding that unpredictable threat induced sustained activity of frontoparietal areas involved in sustained attention (Pardo et al., 1991), is consistent with previous neuroimaging studies linking unpredictable threat to hypervigilance (Carlsson et al., 2006; Hasler et al., 2007).”
§ Phasic and sustained fear in humans elicits distinct patterns of brain activity > Discussion > Predictable and unpredictable threat are associated with different patterns of brain activation
What the sources say
plaincorrelational- Asserted: passes — The authors put it forward as true.
- Checkable: passes — It can be checked against evidence.
- Load-bearing: fails — The paper’s conclusions may not depend on it.
- Based: passes — The paper gives a reason why it holds.
Probably not a substantial claim. The paper’s conclusions may not depend on it.
A conclusion the paper draws from its own results — it cites no other source for it, so there is none to check. The quote shows it is in the paper.
In the paper
“The present study provides further support for this hypothesis.”
§ Phasic and sustained fear in humans elicits distinct patterns of brain activity > Discussion > Summary and caveats
plain- Asserted: passes — The authors put it forward as true.
- Checkable: passes — It can be checked against evidence.
- Load-bearing: passes — The paper’s conclusions depend on it.
- Based: passes — The paper gives a reason why it holds.
Probably not a substantial claim.
A conclusion the paper draws from its own results — it cites no other source for it, so there is none to check. The quote shows it is in the paper.
In the paper
“Conscious appraisal of predictable threat cues may activate threat evaluation processes in dmPFC/dACC.”
§ Phasic and sustained fear in humans elicits distinct patterns of brain activity > Discussion > Summary and caveats
hedgedconditional- Asserted: passes — The authors put it forward as true.
- Checkable: passes — It can be checked against evidence.
- Load-bearing: passes — The paper’s conclusions depend on it.
- Based: fails — The paper may give no reason why it holds.
Probably not a substantial claim. The paper may give no reason why it holds.
The paper relies on this without support.
It is currently unclear whether similar mechanisms support the expression of phasic and sustained fear in humans.
“It is currently unclear whether similar mechanisms support the expression of phasic and sustained fear in humans.”
The paper relies on this without support.
Standard fMRI voxel volumes are typically not small enough to decrease partial volume effects nor provide the spatial resolution required to detect fMRI signal changes from small brain regions.
“Standard fMRI voxel volumes (e.g., 3.8 × 3.8 × 4.0 mm3) are typically not small enough to decrease partial volume effects nor do they provide the spatial resolution required to detect fMRI signal changes from small brain regions.”
The paper relies on this without support.
The transition at context onset prevented unwanted orienting responses.
“This transition at context onset prevented unwanted orienting responses.”
Claims other papers make about this one
Each is checked against this paper’s own text: does it say what the citing paper says it does?
In the citing paper
“Also, it appears to be involved in anticipatory anxiety and threat monitoring.[32][33][34]”
From Electrical stimulation in the bed nucleus of the stria terminalis alleviates severe obsessive-compulsive disorder (2016) · cites this paper as [32]
In the citing paper
“both Alvarez et al (2011) and Mobbs et al (2010) also show amygdala activation during threat conditions, highlighting the well-documented role of the amygdala in evaluating threat”
From The human BNST: functional role in anxiety and addiction (2016) · cites this paper as Alvarez et al (2011)
In the citing paper
“Alvarez et al (2011) used the NPU-threat task to examine brain responses during unpredictable contexts compared with predictable contexts.Analogous to findings in rodents, the BNST was active during unpredictable threat ('anxiety') conditions but not during predictable threat ('fear') conditions, whereas the amygdala showed the opposite pattern-the amygdala was active during predictable threat”
From The human BNST: functional role in anxiety and addiction (2016) · cites this paper as Alvarez et al (2011)
Statistics that don’t add up
Each reported p-value recomputed from its test statistic and degrees of freedom.
Rated minor: it would not touch a result — a value no result rests on, a p-value that stays on the same side of the significance level, or a conflict that is clerical, resolved elsewhere in the paper, or outside its own findings.
In the paper
“F(1, 17)=4.21, P=0.055”
§ Phasic and sustained fear in humans elicits distinct patterns of brain activity > Results
Reported p = .055 · recomputed p = .056
Rated minor: it would not touch a result — a value no result rests on, a p-value that stays on the same side of the significance level, or a conflict that is clerical, resolved elsewhere in the paper, or outside its own findings.
In the paper
“F(1, 17)=5.80, P=0.027”
§ Phasic and sustained fear in humans elicits distinct patterns of brain activity > Results
Reported p = .027 · recomputed p = .028
Rated minor: it would not touch a result — a value no result rests on, a p-value that stays on the same side of the significance level, or a conflict that is clerical, resolved elsewhere in the paper, or outside its own findings.
In the paper
“F(1, 16)=8.37, P=0.010”
§ Phasic and sustained fear in humans elicits distinct patterns of brain activity > Results
Reported p = .01 · recomputed p = .011
Statistics recomputed
Every reported test result, recomputed from its test statistic and degrees of freedom. A result shows as not adding up only once an independent check has confirmed it.
- Doesn’t add upF(1, 17) = 5.8reported p = .027 · recomputed p = .028
“F(1, 17)=5.80, p = .027”
- Doesn’t add upF(1, 17) = 4.21reported p = .055 · recomputed p = .056
“F(1, 17)=4.21, p = .055”
- Doesn’t add upF(1, 16) = 8.37reported p = .01 · recomputed p = .011
“F(1, 16)=8.37, p = .010”
- Not confirmedF(1, 17) = 1.72reported p = .206 · recomputed p = .207
“F(1, 17)=1.72, p = .206”
- ConsistentF(1.6, 27.5) = 38.13reported p < .001 · recomputed p < .001
“F(1.6, 27.5)=38.13, p < .001”
- ConsistentF(1.6, 28.5) = 17.74reported p < .001 · recomputed p < .001
“F(1.6, 28.5)= 17.74, p < .001”
- ConsistentF(1, 17) = 343.2reported p < .001 · recomputed p < .001
“F(1,17)=343.2, p < .001”
- ConsistentF(1, 17) = 22.9reported p < .001 · recomputed p < .001
“F(1,17)=22.9, p < .001”
- ConsistentF(1, 17) = 19.44reported p < .001 · recomputed p < .001
“F(1, 17)=19.44, p < .001”
- ConsistentF(1, 17) = 14.45reported p = .0014 · recomputed p = .001
“F(1, 17)=14.45, p = .0014”
- ConsistentF(1, 17) = 3.32reported p = .086 · recomputed p = .086
“F(1, 17)=3.32, p = .086”
- ConsistentF(1, 16) = 5.17reported p = .037 · recomputed p = .037
“F(1, 16)=5.17, p = .037”
- ConsistentF(1, 16) = 2.07reported p = .169 · recomputed p = .169
“F(1, 16)=2.07, p = .169”
Self-check
Percentages, sums and reported differences re-computed from the paper’s own numbers.
Self-check results appear here once an independent check has confirmed them.
Citations
Cites
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Self-referential processing in our brain—A meta-analysis of imaging studies on the self
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Neurocircuitry of Mood Disorders
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“Therefore, we further hypothesized that the threat of unpredictable shock would generate sustained activity in anterior insula, an area that also has strong projections to medial prefrontal cortical regions associated with the regulation of emotions and visceral reactions (Price and Drevets, 2010).”
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Cited by
Sorted by citations
The integration of negative affect, pain and cognitive control in the cingulate cortex
Shackman, A. J., Salomons, T. V., Slagter, H. A., Fox, A. S., Winter, J. J., & Davidson, R. J. (2011) · Nature Reviews Neuroscience · doi:10.1038/nrn2994 · Cited by 2,082
Uncertainty and anticipation in anxiety: an integrated neurobiological and psychological perspective
Grupe, D. W., & Nitschke, J. B. (2013) · Nature Reviews Neuroscience · doi:10.1038/nrn3524 · Cited by 2,007
Lonsdorf, T. B., Menz, M. M., Andreatta, M., Fullana, M. A., Golkar, A., Haaker, J., Heitland, I., Hermann, A., Kuhn, M., Kruse, O., et al. (2017) · Neuroscience & Biobehavioral Reviews · doi:10.1016/j.neubiorev.2017.02.026 · Cited by 837
Lebow, M. A., & Chen, A. (2016) · Molecular Psychiatry · doi:10.1038/mp.2016.1 · Cited by 660
Linear mixed-effects modeling approach to FMRI group analysis
Chen, G., Saad, Z. S., Britton, J. C., Pine, D. S., & Cox, R. W. (2013) · NeuroImage · doi:10.1016/j.neuroimage.2013.01.047 · Cited by 440
Self-citation
Metadata
- Authors
- Alvarez, R. P., Chen, G., Bodurka, J., Kaplan, R., & Grillon, C.
- Affiliations
- National Institutes of Health (US)
- Corresponding author
- Alvarez, Ruben P.
- Venue
- NeuroImage
- Publisher
- Elsevier BV
- Published
- 2011-03
- Volume
- 55
- Issue
- 1
- Pages
- 389-400
- ISSN
- 1053-8119 (ISSN-L)
- PMC
- PMC3100535
- OpenAlex
- W2027289999
- Semantic Scholar
- 99e0c06ed1cdabb20db71e1b5b5f5ffe3ba61183
- Cited by
- 299
- References
- 70
- Citations by year
- 2026: 9 · 2025: 9 · 2024: 17 · 2023: 16 · 2022: 18 · 2021: 20 · 2020: 24 · 2019: 28 · 2018: 17 · 2017: 31 · 2016: 34 · 2015: 24 · 2014: 14 · 2013: 21 · 2012: 12
- FWCI
- 7.36
- Type
- journal article
- Language
- en
- Open access
- green
- www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov
- Locations
- NeuroImage (publishedVersion)
- PubMed (publishedVersion)
- Europe PMC (PubMed Central) (acceptedVersion)
- PubMed Central (acceptedVersion)
- UCL Discovery (University College London) (submittedVersion)
- Funders
- National Institutes of Health
- National Institute of Mental Health (ZIAMH002798)
- Topics
- Life Sciences › Neuroscience › Cognitive Neuroscience › Memory and Neural Mechanisms
- Life Sciences › Neuroscience › Cognitive Neuroscience › Neural and Behavioral Psychology Studies
- Social Sciences › Psychology › Experimental and Cognitive Psychology › Anxiety, Depression, Psychometrics, Treatment, Cognitive Processes
- Keywords
- bed nucleus of the stria terminalis, anterior insula, hypervigilance, pregenual anterior cingulate cortex, subgenual anterior cingulate cortex, basal forebrain, skin conductance
- MeSH terms
- Brain, Fear, Humans, Magnetic Resonance Imaging, Male, Nerve Net, Young Adult
About these checks
Registry, retraction, Cites and statistics results are computed, not judged, with one exception: a printed reference that no index lists is read once by a model before it counts as a citation error. Claims are extracted by a model and kept only when their quote appears verbatim in the text; each cited source is then checked, with a model’s help, for whether it says what the claim relies on. Those verdicts can be wrong — read the claim’s quote and the cited source before relying on one.
A language model drew the claims from the paper on 2026-10-05, under version 3 of the claim definition (model deepseek-v4.1-flash, prompt extract-v3).
A second model labelled each claim on 2026-10-05 (model jev-1.13-20260917, definition revision gold-guideline-v0.2).
Statistics and arithmetic are recomputed, not judged.
Confidence bands are shown only for fields calibrated on our annotated test set. None is calibrated yet, so no band is shown.
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