The DOI matches its Crossref record; 17 of the 17 references it cites were found in a registry or an index.
Degree of bilingualism predicts age of diagnosis of Alzheimer's disease in low-education but not in highly educated Hispanics
Open accessAbstract
The current study investigated the relationship between bilingual language proficiency and onset of probable Alzheimer's disease (AD) in 44 Spanish-English bilinguals at the UCSD Alzheimer's Disease Research Center. Degree of bilingualism along a continuum was measured using Boston Naming Test (BNT) scores in each language. Higher degrees of bilingualism were associated with increasingly later age-of-diagnosis (and age of onset of symptoms), but this effect was driven by participants with low education level (a significant interaction between years of education and bilingualism) most of whom (73%) were also Spanish-dominant. Additionally, only objective measures (i.e., BNT scores), not self-reported degree of bilingualism, predicted age-of-diagnosis even though objective and self-reported measures were significantly correlated. These findings establish a specific connection between knowledge of two languages and delay of AD onset, and demonstrate that bilingual effects can be obscured by interactions between education and bilingualism, and by failure to obtain objective measures of bilingualism. More generally, these data support analogies between the effects of bilingualism and "cognitive reserve" and suggest an upper limit on the extent to which reserve can function to delay dementia.
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Citations
Cites
Folstein, M. F., Folstein, S. E., & McHugh, P. R. (1975) · Journal of Psychiatric Research · doi:10.1016/0022-3956(75)90026-6 · Cited by 88,282
Stern, Y. (2009) · Neuropsychologia · doi:10.1016/j.neuropsychologia.2009.03.004 · Cited by 2,943
Bilingualism as a protection against the onset of symptoms of dementia
Bialystok, E., Craik, F. I. M., & Freedman, M. (2007) · Neuropsychologia · doi:10.1016/j.neuropsychologia.2006.10.009 · Cited by 967 · cited 2×
“Bialystok, Craik, and Freedman (2007) and Craik, Bialystok, and Freedman (2010, p. 1727), recruited patients from a memory clinic in Toronto, Canada comparing people who “. . .spent the majority of life, at least from early adulthood, regularly using at least two languages” to monolinguals, and…”
BackgroundMethodBrain reserve and dementia: a systematic review
VALENZUELA, M. J., & SACHDEV, P. (2006) · Psychological Medicine · doi:10.1017/s0033291705006264 · Cited by 932
On the bilingual advantage in conflict processing: Now you see it, now you don’t
Costa, A., Hernández, M., Costa-Faidella, J., & Sebastián-Gallés, N. (2009) · Cognition · doi:10.1016/j.cognition.2009.08.001 · Cited by 800
Bialystok, E., Craik, F. I. M., Green, D. W., & Gollan, T. H. (2009) · Gothic.net · doi:10.1177/1529100610387084 · Cited by 753
Lost in Translation: Methodological Considerations in Cross-Cultural Research
Peña, E. D. (2007) · Child Development · doi:10.1111/j.1467-8624.2007.01064.x · Cited by 620
Delaying the onset of Alzheimer disease
Craik, F. I. M., Bialystok, E., & Freedman, M. (2010) · Neurology · doi:10.1212/wnl.0b013e3181fc2a1c · Cited by 618
Gollan, T. H., Weissberger, G. H., Runnqvist, E., Montoya, R. I., & CERA, C. M. (2011) · Bilingualism Language and Cognition · doi:10.1017/s1366728911000332 · Cited by 556
Brain reserve and cognitive decline: a non-parametric systematic review
Valenzuela, M., & Sachdev, P. S. (2006) · Psychological Medicine · doi:10.1017/s0033291706007744 · Cited by 377 · cited 1×
“…Costa-Faidella, & Sebastián-Gallés, 2009; for review see Bialystok, Craik, Green, & Gollan, 2009), imply a beneficial effect of bilingualism on cognitive reserve (Stern, 2009; Valenzuela & Sachdev, 2006a, 2006b), and raise interesting questions regarding mechanisms underlying these effects.”
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Bilingualism: consequences for mind and brain
Bialystok, E., Craik, F. I. M., & Luk, G. (2012) · Trends in Cognitive Sciences · doi:10.1016/j.tics.2012.03.001 · Cited by 1,386
“[128] reported a study with Spanish-English bilinguals who had been diagnosed with probable AD and found that a higher degree of bilingualism was associated with later age of onset and diagnosis, although only in the less-educated patients.”
BackgroundThe bilingual adaptation: How minds accommodate experience
Bialystok, E. (2017) · Psychological Bulletin · doi:10.1037/bul0000099 · Cited by 906
“…conducted in Luxembourg (Perquin et al., 2013), socioeconomic and demographic factors restricted the protective effects to certain groups (Chertkow et al., 2010), interactions of education and degree of proficiency in both languages were associated with age of onset of AD (Gollan et al., 2011).”
BackgroundBilingualism delays age at onset of dementia, independent of education and immigration status
Alladi, S., Bak, T. H., Duggirala, V., Surampudi, B., Shailaja, M., Shukla, A. K., Chaudhuri, J. R., & Kaul, S. (2013) · Neurology · doi:10.1212/01.wnl.0000436620.33155.a4 · Cited by 543
“Education has been widely studied, but the results so far have been contradictory: in some studies, education could explain the bilingual advantage, in others it could not.(1,2,29) In our study, although bilinguals were overall more educated than monolinguals, the bilingual effect was shown to be independent from educ…”
ResultValian, V. V. (2014) · Bilingualism Language and Cognition · doi:10.1017/s1366728914000522 · Cited by 514
How does the bilingual experience sculpt the brain?
Costa, A., & Sebastián‐Gallés, N. (2014) · Nature reviews. Neuroscience · doi:10.1038/nrn3709 · Cited by 430
Metadata
- Authors
- Gollan, T. H., Salmon, D. P., Montoya, R. I., & Galasko, D. R.
- Affiliations
- University of California San Diego (US)
- Corresponding author
- Gollan, Tamar H.
- Venue
- Neuropsychologia
- Publisher
- Elsevier BV
- Published
- 2011-12
- Volume
- 49
- Issue
- 14
- Pages
- 3826-3830
- ISSN
- 0028-3932 (ISSN-L)
- PMC
- PMC3223277
- OpenAlex
- W2022236503
- Cited by
- 218
- References
- 17
- Citations by year
- 2026: 4 · 2025: 9 · 2024: 6 · 2023: 14 · 2022: 8 · 2021: 20 · 2020: 37 · 2019: 28 · 2018: 14 · 2017: 17 · 2016: 22 · 2015: 10 · 2014: 14 · 2013: 10 · 2012: 5
- FWCI
- 6.38
- Type
- journal article
- Language
- en
- Open access
- green
- www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov
- Locations
- Neuropsychologia (publishedVersion)
- PubMed (publishedVersion)
- Europe PMC (PubMed Central) (acceptedVersion)
- PubMed Central (acceptedVersion)
- Funders
- National Institute on Aging (P50AG005131, P50-AG05131)
- National Institute on Deafness and Other Communication Disorders (R01DC011492)
- Eunice Kennedy Shriver National Institute of Child Health and Human Development (R01HD050287)
- Topics
- Health Sciences › Medicine › Psychiatry and Mental health › Dementia and Cognitive Impairment Research
- Life Sciences › Neuroscience › Cognitive Neuroscience › Neurobiology of Language and Bilingualism
- Social Sciences › Psychology › Clinical Psychology › Historical and Modern Theater Studies
- Keywords
- bilingualism, Alzheimer's disease, age at diagnosis, Spanish-English bilinguals, educational attainment, cognitive reserve, Boston Naming Test, dementia onset, Hispanic older adults
- MeSH terms
- Age Factors, Aged, Aged, 80 and over, Alzheimer Disease, Educational Status, Female, Hispanic or Latino, Humans, Male, Names, Neuropsychological Tests, Age of Onset, Multilingualism
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