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Degree of bilingualism predicts age of diagnosis of Alzheimer's disease in low-education but not in highly educated Hispanics
Open accessAbstract
The current study investigated the relationship between bilingual language proficiency and onset of probable Alzheimer's disease (AD) in 44 Spanish-English bilinguals at the UCSD Alzheimer's Disease Research Center. Degree of bilingualism along a continuum was measured using Boston Naming Test (BNT) scores in each language. Higher degrees of bilingualism were associated with increasingly later age-of-diagnosis (and age of onset of symptoms), but this effect was driven by participants with low education level (a significant interaction between years of education and bilingualism) most of whom (73%) were also Spanish-dominant. Additionally, only objective measures (i.e., BNT scores), not self-reported degree of bilingualism, predicted age-of-diagnosis even though objective and self-reported measures were significantly correlated. These findings establish a specific connection between knowledge of two languages and delay of AD onset, and demonstrate that bilingual effects can be obscured by interactions between education and bilingualism, and by failure to obtain objective measures of bilingualism. More generally, these data support analogies between the effects of bilingualism and "cognitive reserve" and suggest an upper limit on the extent to which reserve can function to delay dementia.
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Bilingualism and aging: A focused neuroscientific review
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The Dynamics of Dementia Communication
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Gallo, F., DeLuca, V., Prystauka, Y., Voits, T., Rothman, J., & Abutalebi, J. (2022) · Frontiers in Human Neuroscience · doi:10.3389/fnhum.2022.819105 · Cited by 58
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“…cannot be established with present cross-sectional data (see also e.g., Alladi et al., 2013, 2016; Craik et al., 2010; Crane et al., 2010; Gollan et al., 2011; Sanders et al., 2012, for other cross-sectional studies examining the relation of speaking different languages to cognitive…”
BackgroundKim, S., Jeon, S. G., Nam, Y., Kim, H. S., Yoo, D., & Moon, M. (2019) · Frontiers in Neuroscience · doi:10.3389/fnins.2019.01224 · Cited by 38
Effects of bilingualism on age at onset in two clinical Alzheimer's disease variants
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Gallo, F., Myachykov, A., Юрьевич, Ш. Ю., & Abutalebi, J. (2020) · Journal of Cultural Cognitive Science · doi:10.1007/s41809-020-00058-1 · Cited by 30
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Bilingualism as a strategy to delay the onset of Alzheimer’s disease
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“Despite criticism (Zell & Krizan, 2014), self-report measures of language proficiency have been found to correlate with objective measures (Gollan et al., 2011; Jia et al., 2002; Li et al., 2020; Marian et al., 2007; Schrauf, 2009), with comparable results reported when either measure is used…”
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“Our findings add to the growing literature examining the effects of bilingualism on cognitive aging and dementia among Spanish-speaking individuals in the United States [23, 26, 38].”
ResultInfluentialThe unique role of bilingualism among cognitive reserve-enhancing factors
Gallo, F., & Abutalebi, J. (2023) · Bilingualism Language and Cognition · doi:10.1017/s1366728923000317 · Cited by 30
Which neuropsychological tests predict progression to Alzheimer’s disease in Hispanics?
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“This allowed us to control for education, a factor which has been studied extensively in adult bilingualism (e.g. Gollan et al., 2011; Alladi et al., 2013), in order to examine understudied factors influencing language-related cognitive change.”
BackgroundAssessing language background and experiences among heritage bilinguals
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MethodBilingualism: A Global Public Health Strategy for Healthy Cognitive Aging
Mendis, S. B., Raymont, V., & Tabet, N. (2021) · Frontiers in Neurology · doi:10.3389/fneur.2021.628368 · Cited by 25
“(58) explored bilingual objectively measures of linguistic proficiency using the Boston Naming Task.”
BackgroundMethodSmirnov, D. S., Stasenko, A., Salmon, D. P., Galasko, D. R., Brewer, J. B., & Gollan, T. H. (2019) · Neuropsychologia · doi:10.1016/j.neuropsychologia.2019.107131 · Cited by 22
The effect of language skills on dementia in a Swedish longitudinal cohort
Ljungberg, J. K., Hansson, P., Adolfsson, R., & Nilsson, L. (2016) · Linguistic Approaches to Bilingualism · doi:10.1075/lab.14031.lju · Cited by 20
The relationship of bilingualism to cognitive decline: The Australian Longitudinal Study of Ageing
Mukadam, N., Jichi, F., Green, D. W., & Livingston, G. (2018) · International Journal of Geriatric Psychiatry · doi:10.1002/gps.4778 · Cited by 21
“Subjective reports correlate with objective measures of language proficiency and are a valid measure.(22) Most of the questionnaire was self‐administered in English without an interpreter, so those completing the questionnaire needed a good command of English.”
BackgroundResultWeissberger, G. H., Gollan, T. H., Bondi, M. W., Nation, D. A., Hansen, L. A., Galasko, D. R., & Salmon, D. P. (2019) · Journal of Alzheimer s Disease · doi:10.3233/jad-180351 · Cited by 23
“%) in their non-dominant language, for an average bilingual index score (non-dominant/dominant; see [33]) of 55% (SD = 21%).”
Electrophysiological correlates of emotion word processing in Spanish–English bilinguals
Vélez-Uribe, I., & Rosselli, M. (2020) · Bilingualism Language and Cognition · doi:10.1017/s136672892000036x · Cited by 19
Does bilingualism increase brain or cognitive reserve in patients with temporal lobe epilepsy?
Reyes, A., Paul, B. M., Marshall, A. J., Chang, Y. A., Bahrami, N., Kansal, L., Iragui, V. J., Tecoma, E. S., Gollan, T. H., & McDonald, C. R. (2018) · Epilepsia · doi:10.1111/epi.14072 · Cited by 19
Bilingual proficiency and cognitive reserve in Persian–English bilingual older adults
Jafari, Z., Esmaili, M., Toufan, R., & Aghamollaei, M. (2014) · Aging Clinical and Experimental Research · doi:10.1007/s40520-014-0288-x · Cited by 19
Maschio, N. D., Fedeli, D., & Abutalebi, J. (2018) · Linguistic Approaches to Bilingualism · doi:10.1075/lab.18032.del · Cited by 16
Bilingual benefits in education and health
Spitzer, M. (2016) · Trends in Neuroscience and Education · doi:10.1016/j.tine.2016.07.004 · Cited by 27
Language proficiency does not modulate executive control in older bilinguals
Mishra, R. K., Padmanabhuni, M., Bhandari, P. N., Viswambharan, S., & Prasad, S. G. (2018) · Aging Neuropsychology and Cognition · doi:10.1080/13825585.2018.1562029 · Cited by 18
“Gollan et al. (2011) found that the age of onset of Alzheimer’s disease in SpanishEnglish bilinguals was later than in monolinguals, but only for the low-educated bilinguals.”
BackgroundDoes bilingualism protect against cognitive aging?
Watson, C. W., Manly, J. J., & Zahodne, L. B. (2016) · Linguistic Approaches to Bilingualism · doi:10.1075/lab.15043.wat · Cited by 16
Saint‐Aubin, J., Hilchey, M. D., Mishra, R. K., Singh, N., Savoie, D., Guitard, D., & Klein, R. M. (2018) · Canadian Journal of Experimental Psychology/Revue canadienne de psychologie expérimentale · doi:10.1037/cep0000151 · Cited by 16
Ageing with bilingualism: benefits and challenges
Nickels, L., Hameau, S., Nair, V. K., Barr, P., & Biedermann, B. (2019) · Speech Language and Hearing · doi:10.1080/2050571x.2018.1555988 · Cited by 18
“This is often attributed to the fact that bilingual speakers have reduced use of words in each language (frequency lag: e.g., Gollan et al., 2008; Gollan et al., 2011) – they speak each language less than monolinguals who speak it all of the time.”
BackgroundTorres, V. L., Rosselli, M., Loewenstein, D., Lang, M. K., Vélez-Uribe, I., Arruda, F., Conniff, J., Curiel, R. E., Greig, M. T., Barker, W., et al. (2021) · Bilingualism Language and Cognition · doi:10.1017/s1366728921000705 · Cited by 23
“Rosselli et al. (2019) used the same measure in their study, and Gollan, Salmon, Montoya, and Galasko (2011) originally developed a similar BI using scores from the Boston Naming Test (Kaplan, Goodglass & Weintraub, 1983), dividing the proportion of pictures named correctly in one language by the…”
MethodLiu, Y., Liu, Y., Yip, P., Meguro, M., & Meguro, K. (2017) · Psychogeriatrics · doi:10.1111/psyg.12230 · Cited by 15
MacDonald, B., Berrios-Siervo, G. M., Díaz‐Santos, M., Sánchez, O., Suárez, P., Diaz, A. L., Moss, N. C., & Strutt, A. M. (2023) · Archives of Clinical Neuropsychology · doi:10.1093/arclin/acac108 · Cited by 14
Achaa-Amankwaa, P., Münch, E., Miksch, H., Stumme, J., Heim, S., & Ebersbach, M. (2023) · Scientific Reports · doi:10.1038/s41598-023-43961-7 · Cited by 47
“For one, and most frequently noted, there is the confounding of bi-and multilingualism with other variables affecting the cognitive reserve, such as educational attainment, socio-economic status, and immigration status 47–49 .”
Trebits, A. (2019) · International Journal of Multilingualism · doi:10.1080/14790718.2019.1678626 · Cited by 18
Schweizer, T. A., Craik, F. I. M., & Bialystok, E. (2012) · Cortex · doi:10.1016/j.cortex.2012.10.012 · Cited by 14
“The bilingual delay effectwas also replicated in a study of SpanishEnglish bilinguals in California by Gollan et al. (2011) although only in less educated Hispanics.”
Result
Metadata
- Authors
- Gollan, T. H., Salmon, D. P., Montoya, R. I., & Galasko, D. R.
- Affiliations
- University of California San Diego (US)
- Corresponding author
- Gollan, Tamar H.
- Venue
- Neuropsychologia
- Publisher
- Elsevier BV
- Published
- 2011-12
- Volume
- 49
- Issue
- 14
- Pages
- 3826-3830
- ISSN
- 0028-3932 (ISSN-L)
- PMC
- PMC3223277
- OpenAlex
- W2022236503
- Cited by
- 218
- References
- 17
- Citations by year
- 2026: 4 · 2025: 9 · 2024: 6 · 2023: 14 · 2022: 8 · 2021: 20 · 2020: 37 · 2019: 28 · 2018: 14 · 2017: 17 · 2016: 22 · 2015: 10 · 2014: 14 · 2013: 10 · 2012: 5
- FWCI
- 6.38
- Type
- journal article
- Language
- en
- Open access
- green
- www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov
- Locations
- Neuropsychologia (publishedVersion)
- PubMed (publishedVersion)
- Europe PMC (PubMed Central) (acceptedVersion)
- PubMed Central (acceptedVersion)
- Funders
- National Institute on Aging (P50AG005131, P50-AG05131)
- National Institute on Deafness and Other Communication Disorders (R01DC011492)
- Eunice Kennedy Shriver National Institute of Child Health and Human Development (R01HD050287)
- Topics
- Health Sciences › Medicine › Psychiatry and Mental health › Dementia and Cognitive Impairment Research
- Life Sciences › Neuroscience › Cognitive Neuroscience › Neurobiology of Language and Bilingualism
- Social Sciences › Psychology › Clinical Psychology › Historical and Modern Theater Studies
- Keywords
- bilingualism, Alzheimer's disease, age at diagnosis, Spanish-English bilinguals, educational attainment, cognitive reserve, Boston Naming Test, dementia onset, Hispanic older adults
- MeSH terms
- Age Factors, Aged, Aged, 80 and over, Alzheimer Disease, Educational Status, Female, Hispanic or Latino, Humans, Male, Names, Neuropsychological Tests, Age of Onset, Multilingualism
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