Traumatic Brain Injury and Posttraumatic Stress Disorder
Abstract
Given the upsurge of research in posttraumatic stress disorder (PTSD) and traumatic brain injury (TBI), much of which has focused on military samples who served in Iraq and Afghanistan, the purpose of this article is to review the literature published after September 11th, 2001 that addresses the epidemiology, pathophysiology, evaluation, and treatment of PTSD in the context of TBI.
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PTSD, depressive disorder, and persistent post-concussive symptoms frequently co-occur after mild traumatic brain injury.
“Posttraumatic stress disorder (PtsD), depressive disorder, and persistent post-concussive symptoms frequently co-occur after mild traumatic brain injury (tBi)”
From Feasibility, tolerability, and preliminary effectiveness of an accelerated bilateral intermittent theta-burst stimulation protocol in adults with posttraumatic stress disorder and comorbid depressive disorder following mild traumatic brain injury (2026) · cites this paper as Bahraini et al. 2014
Each of PTSD, depressive disorder, and persistent post-concussive symptoms amplifies the functional impact of the others after mild TBI.
“with each condition amplifying the functional impact of the others”
From Feasibility, tolerability, and preliminary effectiveness of an accelerated bilateral intermittent theta-burst stimulation protocol in adults with posttraumatic stress disorder and comorbid depressive disorder following mild traumatic brain injury (2026) · cites this paper as Bahraini et al. 2014
Cites
Meta-analysis of risk factors for posttraumatic stress disorder in trauma-exposed adults
Brewin, C. R., Andrews, B., & Valentine, J. D. (2000) · Journal of Consulting and Clinical Psychology · doi:10.1037/0022-006x.68.5.748 · Cited by 5,243 · see citing works
Position statement: definition of traumatic brain injury
Menon, D. K., Schwab, K., Wright, D. W., & Maas, A. I. (2010) · Archives of Physical Medicine and Rehabilitation · doi:10.1016/j.apmr.2010.05.017 · Cited by 1,678 · see citing works
The Psychiatric Sequelae of Traumatic Injury
Bryant, R. A., O'Donnell, M. L., Creamer, M., McFarlane, A. C., Clark, C. R., & Silove, D. (2010) · American Journal of Psychiatry · doi:10.1176/appi.ajp.2009.09050617 · Cited by 843 · see citing works
Taylor, B. C., Hagel, E. M., Carlson, K. F., Cifu, D. X., Cutting, A., Bidelspach, D. E., & Sayer, N. A. (2012) · Medical Care · doi:10.1097/mlr.0b013e318245a558 · Cited by 352 · see citing works
Psychiatric Disorders Following Traumatic Brain Injury: Their Nature and Frequency
Whelan-Goodinson, R., Ponsford, J., Johnston, L., & Grant, F. (2009) · Journal of Head Trauma Rehabilitation · doi:10.1097/htr.0b013e3181a712aa · Cited by 310 · see citing works
Post-traumatic stress disorder vs traumatic brain injury
Bryant, R. (2011) · Dialogues in Clinical Neuroscience · doi:10.31887/dcns.2011.13.2/rbryant · Cited by 268 · see citing works
Chard, K. M., Schumm, J. A., McIlvain, S. M., Bailey, G. W., & Parkinson, R. B. (2011) · Journal of Traumatic Stress · doi:10.1002/jts.20644 · Cited by 154 · see citing works
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Scholten, A. C., Haagsma, J. A., Cnossen, M. C., Olff, M., van Beeck, E. F., & Polinder, S. (2016) · Journal of Neurotrauma · doi:10.1089/neu.2015.4252 · Cited by 276 · see citing works
Stein, M. B., Kessler, R. C., Heeringa, S. G., Jain, S., Campbell-Sills, L., Colpe, L. J., Fullerton, C. S., Nock, M. K., Sampson, N. A., Schoenbaum, M., et al. (2015) · American Journal of Psychiatry · doi:10.1176/appi.ajp.2015.14121572 · Cited by 161 · see citing works
Chronic pain, TBI, and PTSD in military veterans: A link to suicidal ideation and violent impulses?
Blakey, S. M., Wagner, H. R., Naylor, J., Brancu, M., Lane, I., Sallee, M., Kimbrel, N. A., & Elbogen, E. B. (2018) · The Journal of Pain · doi:10.1016/j.jpain.2018.02.012 · Cited by 86 · see citing works
Weis, C. N., Webb, E. K., deRoon-Cassini, T. A., & Larson, C. L. (2022) · Biological Psychiatry · doi:10.1016/j.biopsych.2021.07.023 · Cited by 75 · see citing works
Guardado, P., Olivera, A., Rusch, H. L., Roy, M., Martin, C., Lejbman, N., Lee, H., & Gill, J. M. (2016) · Journal of Anxiety Disorders · doi:10.1016/j.janxdis.2015.12.004 · Cited by 50 · see citing works
Zhao, J., Huynh, J., Hylin, M. J., O'Malley, J. J., Perez, A., Moore, A. N., & Dash, P. K. (2018) · Journal of Neurotrauma · doi:10.1089/neu.2016.4898 · Cited by 39 · see citing works
Klyce, D. W., Perrin, P. B., Ketchum, J. M., Finn, J. A., Juengst, S. B., Gary, K. W., Fisher, L. B., Pasipanodya, E., Niemeier, J. P., Vargas, T. A., et al. (2024) · Journal of Head Trauma Rehabilitation · doi:10.1097/htr.0000000000000902 · Cited by 9 · see citing works
Rubaye, S., Shah, A., Aldulaimy, W., Hernandez, A., Park, H., Sorial, V., Prasad, P., & Iyengar, S. (2026) · International Journal of Psychiatry in Clinical Practice · doi:10.1080/13651501.2026.2733584
- Authors
- Bahraini, N. H., Breshears, R. E., Hernández, T. D., Schneider, A. L., Forster, J. E., & Brenner, L. A.
- Affiliations
- United States Department of Veterans Affairs (US)
- WellStar Health System (US)
- Corresponding author
- Bahraini, Nazanin H.
- Venue
- Psychiatric Clinics of North America
- Publisher
- Elsevier BV
- Published
- 2014-03
- Volume
- 37
- Issue
- 1
- Pages
- 55-75
- ISSN
- 0193-953X (ISSN-L)
- OpenAlex
- W1978820940
- Cited by
- 70
- References
- 7
- Citations by year
- 2026: 3 · 2025: 3 · 2024: 2 · 2023: 5 · 2021: 4 · 2020: 7 · 2019: 12 · 2018: 6 · 2017: 8 · 2016: 7 · 2015: 10 · 2014: 1 · 2013: 1
- FWCI
- 1.16
- Type
- journal article
- Language
- en
- Open access
- closed
- Locations
- Psychiatric Clinics of North America (publishedVersion)
- PubMed (publishedVersion)
- Topics
- Health Sciences › Medicine › Epidemiology › Traumatic Brain Injury Research
- Social Sciences › Psychology › Clinical Psychology › Posttraumatic Stress Disorder Research
- Health Sciences › Medicine › Neurology › Traumatic Brain Injury and Neurovascular Disturbances
- Keywords
- traumatic brain injury, post-traumatic stress disorder, military personnel, Iraq and Afghanistan wars, pathophysiology, PTSD treatment, war injuries
- MeSH terms
- Brain, Brain Injuries, Diagnosis, Differential, Humans, Military Personnel, Stress Disorders, Post-Traumatic, Cohort Studies, Outcome Assessment, Health Care, Diagnostic and Statistical Manual of Mental Disorders, Neuroimaging
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